RURAL  TEXT-BOOK 
SERIES 


A 

TEXT-  BOOK 
OF  GRASSES 


HITCHCOCK 


L,  H.  BAILEY 

EDITOR 


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Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey 


A  TEXT -BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


'Ctje  aural  Cext=2^oob  ^txiesi 

Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey 


Mann,  Beginnings  in  Agriculture 
Warren,  Elements  of  Agriculture 
Warren,  Farm  Management 
Lyon  &  Fippin,  Soil  Management 
J.  F.  DuGGER,  Southern  Field  Crops 
B.  M.  Duqgar,  Plant  Physiology 
Harper,  Animal  Husbandry  for  Schools 
Montgomery,  Corn  Crops 
W^heeler,  Manures  and  Fertilizers 
Livingston,  Field  Crop  Production 
WiDTSOE,  Irrigation  Practice 
Hitchcock,  A  Text-Book  of  Grasses 
Gay,  Judging  Live-Stock 


A  TEXT-BOOK  OF 
GRASSES 


WITH    ESPECIAL   REFERENCE   TO 

THE  ECONOMIC  SPECIES  OF  THE 

UNITED   STATES 


BY 

A:^  ^HITCHCOCK 

8T8TEMATIC    AGROSTOLOGIST,  UNITED    STATES    DEPARTMENT  OF    AGRICULTURE, 

WASHINGTON,    D.    C. ;    FORMERLY    PROFESSOR    OF    BOTANY    IN    THE 

KANSAS    STATE    AGRICULTURAL    COLLEGE 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1914 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,   1914 
By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  September,  1914 


Jl^ount  ©Iea«ant  l^reM 

J.  Horace  Mcl'arland  Company 
Hanisburg,  i'a. 


PREFACE 

The  present  work  is  primarily  a  text-book,  but  some 
technical  information  is  included  that  might  more  properly 
be  consigned  to  a  reference  book.  To  a  considerable 
extent  this  reference  matter  is  appended  to  text  para- 
graphs in  the  form  of  notes  in  smaller  type.  Although 
the  chief  emphasis  is  placed  on  Systematic  Agrostology, 
comprising  Part  II,  a  brief  outline  of  Economic  Agros- 
tology is  presented  in  Part  I.  In  this  part  the  clovers 
and  other  forage  plants  not  belonging  to  the  grass  family 
are  referred  to  in  classifying  the  forage  plants  and  their 
uses.  The  reader  will  observe  that  by  the  plan  adopted 
the  information  on  a  given  grass  is  not  found  segregated 
in  a  single  paragraph  or  chapter  but  is  scattered  to  meet 
the  necessities  of  the  classification  used.  The  index 
makes  these  scattered  paragraphs  readily  accessible. 

The  botanical  information  concerning  each  species 
will  be  found  in  the  appropriate  paragraph  in  Part  II, 
but  the  economic  information  will  be  found  classified  in 
Part  I,  a  part  under  the  chapter  on  meadow  plants,  for 
example,  and  a  part  under  the  chapter  on  pasture  plants. 
It  seems  to  the  author  that  this  method  has  didactic 
advantages.  In  a  reference  book  it  might  be  more  con- 
venient to  have  all  the  information  on  one  species  placed 
in  sequence.  Part  I  is  too  elementary  to  meet  the  demands 
of  a  course  in  agronomy,  but  it  is  hoped  that  it  may  be 
found  useful  as  a  bridge  to  connect  the  subjects  of  Sys- 
tematic Agrostology  and  Agronomic  Agrostology. 

(V) 


^6^^       ^.  C.  STATE  COLl.^ 


vi  PREFACE 

The  key  to  genera  includes  all  the  genera  found  grow- 
ing wild  or  in  common  cultivation  in  the  United  States. 
More  complete  descriptions  of  the  more  important  genera 
are  added  under  each  tribe.  For  use  as  a  reference  work 
it  would  have  been  desirable  to  give  full  descriptions  of 
each  genus.  But  again  the  author's  course  was  modified 
by  didactic  requirements.  It  is  unnecessary  for  the 
student  to  acquire  information  on  the  unimportant  genera. 

The  nomenclature  followed  is  that  of  the  American 
Code.  Synonyms  are  introduced  whenever  a  species  or 
genus  has  been  commonly  known  under  another  name. 

After  careful  consideration,  the  English  system  is 
used  for  all  measurements  except  the  small  fractions  of 
an  inch.  But  for  the  smaller  measurements  the  milli- 
meter is  adopted  as  the  unit.  The  English  system  is  as 
yet  more  familiar  than  the  metric  for  the  larger  measure- 
ments. The  small  fractions  of  an  inch  however  are  incon- 
venient. The  line  might  be  used  but  is  unfamiliar  and  is 
too  large  a  unit.  The  millimeter  meets  the  requirements 
as  to  convenience  and  size  of  unit,  and  is  sufficiently 
familiar  to  botanical  students. 

The  habit  drawings  have  been  made  by  Mrs.  Mary 
Wright  Gill,  the  detailed  drawings  of  the  spikelet  by  Mrs. 

Agnes  Chase. 

A.  S.  HITCHCOCK. 
Washington,  D.  C. 
May  12,  1914. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 


PART  I 

ECONOMIC  AGROSTOLOGY 


CHAPTER  I 

Pages 
iNTRODtTCTION 1-5 

Agrostology,  2 — Economic  agrostology,  2 — Systematic 
agrostology,  3 — The  uses  of  grasses,  3 — The  value  of 
farm  crops,  4. 

CHAPTER  II 

Economic  Classification  of  Grasses 6-13 

Grains,  6 — Uses  of  the  grains  for  food,  6 — Relative  im- 
portance of  the  different  grains,  7 — Value  and  production 
of  the  cereals,  8 — Starch,  11 — Alcohol,  12 — Miscellaneous 
uses,  12. 

CHAPTER  III 

Forage  Plants     14-28 

The  importance  of  forage  plants,  14 — Natural  classi- 
fication, 19 — Legumes,  19 — Miscellaneous,  21 — Classi- 
fication of  forage  plants  according  to  use,  22 — Pasture 
plants,  22 — Native  pastures,  22 — Ranges,  22 — Over- 
grazing, 24 — Rejuvenating  wornout  ranges,  25 — Range 
grasses,  26. 

(vii) 


VIU  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IV 

Pages 

Cultivated  Pastures 2^37 

Permanent  pastures 29-36 

Pasture  grasses,  30 — Blue-grass,  30 — Establishing  a 
blue-grass  pasture,  27 — Bermuda-grass,  31 — Estab- 
lishing a  Bermuda  pasture,  32 — Other  pasture- 
grasses,  33 — Brome-grass,  33 — Red  top,  33 — Orchard- 
grass,  33 — Meadow  fescue,  33 — Rye  grasses,  33 — 
Southern  pasture-grasses,  35 — Two  common  tropical 
grasses,  35. 

Temporary  pasture 36-37 

Annual  plants  for  pasture,  36. 


CHAPTER  V 

Meadow  Plants 38-53 

Native  meadows,  38 — The  commercial  production  of 
wild  hay,  39 — Salt-marsh  grass,  40 — Tame  meadows, 
40 — Permanent  meadows,  40 — AlfaKa  (Medicago  saliva 
L.),  41— Clovers,  41— Timothy,  42— Redtop,  43— 
Johnson-grass,  43 — Eradication  of  Johnson-grass,  44 — 
Other  meadow-grasses,  45 — Slender  wheat-grass,  45 — 
Temporary  meadows,  46 — Grain  hay,  46 — The  relative 
importance  of  grain  hay,  46 — MiUets,  47 — Sorghum, 
48 — Corn,  48 — Other  grasses  producing  hay  or  coarse 
fodder,  49 — Japanese  barnyard  millet,  49 — Proso  millet, 
50 — Pearl  millet,  .50 — Legumes,  50 — Cowpea  (Vigna 
sinensis  (Torner)  Savi),  51 — Velvet  bean  (Stizolobium 
Deeringianum  Bort),  52 — Vetches,  52 — Other  legumes, 
52. 

CHAPTER  VI 

Hay  and  Green  Feed 54-60 

Hay,  54 — In  arid  regions,  55 — Stacks,  55 — Hay  in  the 
West,  56— The  standard  hay,  56— Baled  hay,  56— Soiling 
and  silage  crops,  57 — Soihng,  57 — Silage,  58. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  IX 

CHAPTER  VII 

Paqesj 

Lawns 61-67 

Essentials  for  a  lawn,  61 — Blue-grass,  61 — Rhode  Island 
bent,  62 — Bermuda-grass,  62 — Less  important  lawn- 
grasses,  63 — Lawn  mixtures,  64 — Preparation  of  the 
soil,  65 — Seeding,  65 — Subsequent  care,  66 — Watering, 
66— Turfing,  67. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

Grasses  Used  for  Miscellaneous  Purposes  ....  68-74 
Ornamental  grasses,  68 — The  bamboos,  69 — Soil- 
binding,  69 — Sand-dunes,  69 — Reclaiming  sand-dunes, 
70 — Sand-binders,  71 — Fixing  sand  with  beach-grass, 
71 — Sugar-producing  grasses,  72^Sugar-cane,  72 — 
Sorgho  or  sorghum,  73 — Textile  grasses,  73 — Other  uses, 
74 — Green-manuring,  74. 


CHAPTER  IX 

Weeds 75-78 

Classes  of  weeds,  75 — Perennial  weeds,  76 — Weedy 
grasses,  76 — Annual  weeds,  76 — On  the  Pacific  coast, 
77 — Perennial  weedy  grasses,  77 — The  seriously  trouble- 
some weeds,  78. 


CHAPTER  X 

Grass  Crop  Areas 79-91 

Moisture,  79 — Temperature,  79 — The  timothy  area,  80 — 
The  Bermuda-grass  area,  81 — The  Great  Plains,  81 — 
Forage  crops  for  the  Great  Plains,  82 — ^The  arid  section, 
83 — The  Pacific  slope,  84 — The  relative  importance  of 
the  different  kinds  of  forage  in  the  different  regions  of 
the  United  States,  84— Remarks  on  Table  XVII,  85. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PART    II 

SYSTEMATIC  AGROSTOLOGY 


CHAPTER  XI 

Pages 

Morphology  of  the  Vegetative  Organs 95-111 

Distinguishing  characters  of  grasses,  95 — Gross  anatomy, 
96 — Perennial  herbaceous  species,  96 — Distribution,  97 — 
The  root,  98— The  stem,  98— Duration,  99— Stems  modi- 
fied for  propagation,  100 — Stolons,  101 — Corms,  102 — 
Artificial  propagation  by  means  of  stems,  102 — The  leaf, 
103— Leaf-base  and  blades,  104— The  prophyllum,  104— 
The  sheath,  104 — Sheath-nodes,  105 — The  collar,  105 — 
The  ligule,  105— The  blade,  106— Nervation,  107— 
Auricles,  108— Roil  leaves,  108— Scales,  109— Bracts, 
110. 

CHAPTER  XII 

Morphology  of  the  Floral  Organs 112-132 

The  inflorescence,  112 — Kinds  of  inflorescence,  113 — 
Unisexual  inflorescence,  114 — Monoecious  genera,  115 — 
The  axis  of  inflorescence,  115 — Branching  of  panicles, 
116 — Motor  organs,  117— The  spikelet,  117— Sterile 
spikelets,  120— The  pedicel,  120— The  glumes,  121— 
Anomalous  glumes,  123 — The  lemma,  124 — Sterile  flo- 
rets and  sterile  lemmas,  125 — Awns,  126 — Twisted  awns, 
127— The  palea,  127— The  lodicules,  128— The  stamens, 
128— The  pistil,  129— The  fruit,  129— The  seed,  130— 
The  embryo,  131 — The  endosperm,  131 — The  rachilla, 
131. 

CHAPTER  XIII 

Ecology      133-150 

Seed  dispersal,  133 — Dispersal  by  wind,  133 — Dispersal 
by    animals,    135 — Germination,    136 — Germination    of 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  > 

Pagi 
maize,  136 — Impervious  seed-coverings,  137 — Self-burial, 
137 — Water-grasses,  138 — Propagation  by  bulblets,  139 
— Plant  societies,  139 — Mesophytes,  140 — Xerophytes, 
141— Prairie,  142— Sandy  soil,  143— Sand-dunes,  143— 
Pine-barrens,  144 — Rocks,  144 — Deserts,  144 — Halo- 
phytes,  146 — Hydrophytes,  146 — Geographical  dis- 
tribution, 147 — Distribution  of  grasses,  148 — Distri- 
bution of  species,  148 — Circumpolar  distribution,  149 — 
Generic  distribution,  149. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

Taxonomy  or  Classification 151-158 

Species,  151 — Genera,  152 — The  grass  family  and  its 
subdivisions,  154 — The  two  scries  of  tribes,  154 — The 
tribes  of  grasses,  155 — The  more  important  genera  of 
grasses,  156 — Characters  used  in  classification,  157 — 
Phylogeny,  157. 


CHAPTER  XV 

Tribe  1.     Maydese 159-163 

Tripsacum    L.,    159 — FAichlsena    Schrad.,    160 — Zea   L., 
161— Coix  L.,  162. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

Tribe  II.     Andropogoneae 164-173 

Miscanthus  Anderss.,  166 — Saccharum  L.,  166 — Eri- 
anthus  Michx.,  167 — Subtribe  Euandropogoneas,  167 — 
Andropogon  L.,  169 — CUjmbopogon  Spreng.,  169 — Holcus 
L.,  170 — Classification  of  the  sorghums,  172 — Tribe  III. 
Naziese  {Zoysieae),  173 — Tribe  IV.  Melinidese  {Triste- 
gineae),  175. 


xii  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XVII 

Pages 

Tribe  V.     Paniceap 176-188 

Paspalum  L.,  179 — Axonopus  Beauv.,  180 — Syntherisma 
Walt.,  180— Panicwm  L.,  ISl—Echinochloa  Beauv.,  183— 
Tricholxna  Schrad.,  184 — Chaetochloa  Scribn.,  184 — 
Pennisetum  Pers.,  186 — Cenchrus  L.,  187 — Stenotaphrum 
Trin.,  187. 

CHAPTER  XVIII 

Tribe  VI.     Oryxes' 189-191 

Oryza  L.,  im—Ziznnia  L.,  191. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

Tribe  VII.     Phalarides' 192-195 

Savastana  Schrank,  192 — Anthoxanlhum  L.,  193 — 
Phalaris  L.,  194. 

CHAPTER  XX 

Tribe  VIII.     Agrostides- 196-207 

Aristida  L.,  199 — SHpa  L.,  199 — Muhle7}bergia  Schreb., 
200— Phleum  L.,  2(^—Alopecurm  L.,  202~Agros(is  L., 
203 — Calamagrosds  Adans.,  205 — Ammophila  Host, 
2{Xt—Lagunu^  L.,  207. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

Tribe  IX.     Avenea- 208-212 

Nolholcus  Nash,  209— Avena  L.,  209— Origin  of  the  cul- 
tivated oats,  211 — Arrhenatherum  Beauv.,  212. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  Xiii 

CHAPTER  XXII 

Pages 
Tribe  X.     Chloridex 213-218 

Cajmola  Adans.,  214 — Chloris  Swartz,  216 — Bouteloua 
Lag.,  2m—Bulbilis  Raf.,  218. 

CHAPTER  XXIII 

Tribe  XI.     Festucesp 219-234 

Cortaderia  Stapf,  224 — Arundo  L.,  224 — Eragrostis 
Host,  22b— Distichlis  Raf.,  225— Dactylis  L.,  226— Poa 
L.,  227 — Kentucky  blue-grass  (P.  pratensis  L.),  228 — 
Other  economic  species  of  Poa,  229 — Festuca  L.,  230 — 
Meadow  fescue,  230 — Sheep's  fescue  (F.  ovina  L.),  231 — 
Red  fescue  {F.  rubra  L.),  2^\—Bromus  L.,  232— Awnless 
brorae-grass,  232 — Rescue-grass  {B.  unioloides  Kunth), 
233. 

CHAPTER  XXIV 

Tribe  XII.     Hordese        235-246 

Lolium  L.,  236 — Agropyron  Gaertn.,  237 — Triticum  L., 
238— Spelt  and  emmer,  239— Origin  of  wheat,  240— 
Classification  of  the  wheats,  242 — Secale  L.,  244 — 
Hordeum  L.,  2U—Elyimis  L.,  246— Tribe  XIII.  Bambit- 
sesp,  247. 

CHAPTER  XXV 

Nomenclature 250-266 

Generic  names,  250 — Specific  names,  251 — Nouns  in 
the  genitive,  252 — Nouns  in  apposition,  252 — Names 
of  a  lower  category,  253 — Transferring  specific  names, 
253 — Authors  of  names,  254 — Use  of  parentheses,  254 — 
Capitalization,  255 — Bibliography,  256 — Valid  names 
and  synonyms,  257 — Codes  of  botanical  nomenclature, 
258 — Vienna  code,  258 — American  code,  259 — Compari- 
son of  the  two  recent  codes,  260 — Common  names,  260 — 
List  of  books  and  articles  relating  to  taxonomic  agros- 
tology, 262. 


LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Fig.  Page 

1.  Production  of  hay  and  forage  in  the  United  States.    One  large 

dot  represents  500,000  tons;  one  small  dot  represents  100,000 
tons 14 

2.  Production  of  timothy  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  represents 

100,000  tons 15 

3.  Production  of  timothy  and  clover  mixed  in  the  United  States. 

One  dot  represents  100,000  tons •  ■  •  •      1^ 

4.  Production  of  clover  alone  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  rep- 

resents 10,000  tons 16 

5.  Production  of  alfalfa  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  represents 

20,000  tons 16 

6.  Production  of  millet  and  Hungarian-grass  in  the  United  States. 

One  dot  represents  5,000  tons IS 

7.  Production  of  other  tame  and  cultivated  grasses  in  the  United 

States.    One  dot  represents  10,000  tons 18 

8.  Production   of   wild,    salt   and    prairie   grasses   in    the    United 

States.    One  dot  represents  10,000  tons 19 

9.  Production  of  grains  cut  green  in  the  United  States.    One  dot 

represents  10,000  tons 20 

10.  Production  of  coarse  forage  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  rep- 

resents 20,000  tons 20 

11.  Euchlsena  mexicana.    Portion  of  plant  reduced;  a  pistillate  in- 

florescence, and  four  fertile  spikelets.    (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div. 
Agrost.  Bull.  No.  20) 160 

12.  Coix    lacryma-Jobi.     Inflorescence    showing    several   pistillate 

beads,  the  staminate  spikes  protruding:  x% 162 

13.  Miscanthus  sinensis.    Plant  much  reduced;  spikelet,  X  3.    (U.S. 

Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  No.  20) 166 

14.  Saccharum  officinarum.    Plant  much  reduced;    three  joints  of 

the  rachis   (a),  a  spikelet   (b),  and  a  flower  (c),  X3.    (U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  No.  20) 167 

15.  Erianthus    divaricatus.     Plant    reduced;    spikelet,    flower,    the 

two  glumes,  and  the  fertile  lemma  with  lower  portion  of  awn. 
(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  No.  17) 168 

16.  Andropogon  furcatus.    Inflorescence,  xH-   A  joint  of  the  rachis 

with  a  fertile  spikelet  below  and  a  staminate  spikelet  above,  X  5.   169 

(XV) 


XVI 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Fia.  Page 

17.  Holcus  halepensis.   Inflorescence  and  rhizomes,  X  J^^;  a  terminal 

fertile  spikelet  with   two  staminate  spikelets,  X  3 171 

18.  Hilaria    cenchroides.      Plant    reduced;    group    of    spikelets,    a 

staminate  spikelet,   a  pistillate  spikelet,    X  5.     (U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  No.  20) 174 

19.  Paspalum  dilatatum.    Inflorescence,  xVz',  spikelet  X5 179 

20.  Syntherisma  sanguinalis.   Plant,  X  H;  two  views  of  spikelet,  X5.    180 

21.  Panicum    miliaceum.     Inflorescence,    X  %;   spikelet   and    fruit 

(fertile  lemma  and  palea),  X  7 182 

22.  Echinochloa  f rumentacea.     Inflorescence,  X  V2 ',  spikelet,  X  5 . . .    183 

23.  Chsetochloa  lutescens.    Inflorescence,  X  %  \   spikelet  with   sub- 

tending bristles,  X  5 184 

24.  Chsetochloa  italica,  Hungarian-grass.    Inflorescence,  X  M 185 

25.  Chaetochloa  italica,  common  millet.  Inflorescence,  X  H;  fruit  X  5.   185 

26.  Pennisetum    glaucum.     Inflorescence,  X  M ;    spikelet   with   in- 

volucre of  bristles,  X  5 18G 

27.  Cenchrus   carolinianus.     Upper  portion  of  plant  with  inflor- 

escence,   X  !i;  spikelet,  X  7 187 

28.  Stenotaphrum    secundatum.     Upper    portion    of    culms    with 

inflorescence,  X  H;  spikelet,  X  5 188 

29.  Pharus  glaber.    Plant  reduced;  branchlet  of  inflorescence  with 

a  sessile  pistillate  and  pedicelled  staminate  spikelet,  and  a 
fertile  floret.    (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.,BuU  No.  20)  .. .    189 

30.  Oryza  sativa.    Inflorescence,  X  li\  spikelet,  X  3 191 

31.  Zizania  palustris.    Inflorescence,  much  reduced.     (U.  S.  Dept. 

Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  No.  14) 191 

32.  Anthoxanthum  odoratum.    Inflorescence,  X  1 ;  spikelet,  the  two 

sterile  lemmas  and  the  fertile  floret,  X  5 192 

33.  Phalaris  arundinacea.    Inflorescence,  X  K;    spikelet  and  fertile 

floret,  X  5 193 

34.  Phalaris  canariensis.     Inflorescence,    X  J^ ;    glumes    and    fertile 

floret  with  the  pair  of  sterile  lemmas,  X  5 194 

35.  Aristida  longiseta.    Spikelet,  the  fertile  lemma  raised  from  the 

glumes,  X  1 199 

36.  Stipa  spartea.  Mature  fertile  lemma  (fruit)  with  twisted  awn,  Xl.  200 

37.  Muhlenbergia  gracilis.    Plant,  XH;    spikelet,  the  floret  raised 

from  the  glumes;   glumes  and  floret.    (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div. 
Bot.  Bull.  No.  26) 201 

38.  Phleum    pratense.     Inflorescence,    X  ]/2\    glumes    and    mature 

floret,  X  5 202 

39.  Alopecurus    pratensis.      Plant    reduced;    spikelet    and    floret. 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  No.  20) 203 

40.  Agrostis  alba.    Inflorescence  and  rhizomes,  X  3^;  spikelet,  X  5. .   204 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 


Fia. 


Page 


41.  Calamagrostis    scabra.     Plant    reduced;    spikelet,    the    floret 

raised  from  the  glumes.  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull 
No.  20) 205 

42.  Ammophila  arenaria.    Inflorescence  and  lower  portion  of  plant, 

XH.    (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull  No.  14) '  206 

43.  Notholcus    lanatus.      Inflorescence,     x3i;    spikelet,     the    two 

florets  raised  from  the  glumes,  X  7 210 

44.  Avena  fatua.    Spikelet  and  a  lower  floret,  X  1 211 

45.  Arrhenatherum  elatius.    Inflorescence,  XK;  spikelet,  X4 212 

46.  Capriola  Dactylon.    Plant  showing  stolons,    XJi;  spikelet,  X7.   215 

47.  Bouteloua  gracilis.    Inflorescence,  X  1;  spikelet,  X  10 216 

48.  Bulbilis  dactyloides.    Staminate  plant,  X  Yz;  spikelet,  X 4 217 

49.  Bulbilis  dactyloides.    Pistillate  plant,  X  H;   cluster  of  spikelets 

and  floret,  X  4 218 

60.  Cortaderia  argentea.    A  group  of  inflorescences  greatly  reduced ; 

glumes  of  pistillate  spikelet  (a),  florets  of  pistillate  spikelet, 
(6)  glumes  (c),  and  florets  (d)  of  staminate  spikelet.  (U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  No.  20) 224 

61.  Eragrostis  cilianensis.    Plant,   reduced;   two  spikelets,  showing 

variable  number  of  florets;  portion  of  rachilla  from  which 
some  of  the  florets  have  fallen.  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div. 
Agrost.  Bull.  No.  17) 225 

62.  Distichlis    spicata.     Staminate    plant    (at    left)    and    pistillate 

plant  (at  right)  reduced;  pistillate  and  staminate  spikelets. . .   226 

53.  Dactylis  glomerata.    Inflorescence,  XH\  spikelet,  X  7 227 

54.  Poa  pratensis.    Plant,  X  3^;  spikelet  and  floret,  X  5 229 

55.  Festuca  elatior.    Inflorescence,  X  M;  spikelet,  X  4 231 

56.  Bromus  iuormis.    Inflorescence,  X  3^;  spikelet,  X  3 233 

57.  Lolium  multiflorum.    Inflorescence,  X  M;  spikelet,  with  portion 

of  rachis,  X  3 237 

68.  AgropjTon  repens.    Inflorescence  and  rhizomes,  X  H;  spikelet, 


X3 


238 


69.  Triticum  dicoccum.    Inflorescence  (head),  X  M;   spikelet  with 

a  disarticulated  joint  of  the  rachis,  X  2 239 

60.  Triticum  asstivum.     Inflorescence   (head),  X  M;    spikelet  with 

portion  of  attached  rachis,  X  2 241 

61.  Secale  cereale.    Inflorescence  (head),  X  J^;  spikelet,  X  2 244 

62.  Hordeum   vulgare.     Inflorescence    (head),     XK;   cluster  of  3 

spikelets,   and   a  single  floret  from   the  back  showing  the 
stipiform  rachilla,  X  2 245 

63.  Arundinaria  macrosperma.    Portion  of  culm  with  inflorescence 

reduced;   floret,    palea   showing   lodicules,    and   a   caryopsis, 
reduced.    (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  No.  20) 248 


PART  I 
ECONOMIC    AGROSTOLOGY 


A  TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 


Economic  botany  is  that  branch  of  the  science  of 
botany  which  treats  of  the  uses  of  plants.  All  animals,  man 
included,  are  dependent  directly  or  indirectly  upon  plants 
for  their  existence.  With  the  exception  of  water  and  a 
small  amount  of  mineral  matter  such  as  salt,  the  food- 
supply  of  all  animal  life  finally  may  be  traced  back  to 
the  constructive  metabolism  of  plants,  a  process  depend- 
ent upon  photosynthesis.  Many  animals  derive  a  whole 
or  a  part  of  their  food  from  other  animals,  but  sooner  or 
later  in  the  chain  of  relations  between  animals  and  their 
food-supply  a  point  is  reached  where  the  ultimate  deriva- 
tion is  from  plants.  The  vegetable  kingdom  provides 
directly  a  large  part  of  the  food  for  man  and  for  his 
domestic  animals.  It  provides  the  fibers  from  which  much 
of  his  clothing  is  made;  much  of  the  material  for  construct- 
ing his  home  and  the  articles  with  which  it  is  furnished; 
many  of  the  drugs,  medicines,  dyes,  condiments,  bever- 
ages, and  a  great  variety  of  other  useful  articles  or 
substances. 

Of  the  natural  families  of  plants  that  contribute  their 
quota  to  supply  the  wants  of  man,  the  grass  family  exceeds 
all  others  in  the  amount  and  value  of  its  products.  To 
A  (1) 


2  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

this  family  belong  the  grains,  such  as  wheat,  com,  and 
rice,  that  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  vegetable  food  of  the 
world  for  man,  and  feed  for  stock;  the  greater  part  of  the 
pasture  and  meadow  plants  that  furnish  forage  and  hay; 
and  many  large  grasses  such  as  the  sugar-cane,  the  sor- 
ghum, and  the  bamboos  that  are  not  usually  classed  with 
this  family  by  those  who  are  not  botanists. 

1.  Agrostology. — Agrostology  is  that  branch  of  botany 
which  treats  of  grasses.  The  term  is  derived  from  two 
Greek  words,  agrostis  (ayposrts  from  aypos,  a  field)  a 
kind  of  grass,  and  logos  (Xoyos)  speech.  The  subject  is 
usually  divided  into  two  branches,  economic  agrostology 
and  systematic  agrostology.  Like  any  other  branch  of 
botany,  agrostology  can  be  considered  also  from  the 
standpoint  of  anatomy,  morphology,  or  physiology.  Up 
to  the  present  time  the  study  of  grasses  from  these  stand- 
points has  not  received  distinctive  recognition  but  has 
been  merged  with  the  anatomy,  morphology,  and  physiol- 
ogy of  plants  in  general,  or  has  been  included  in  syste- 
matic agrostology. 

2.  Economic  agrostology. — This  is  that  branch  of 
economic  botany  which  treats  of  grasses,  or  it  is  that 
branch  of  agrostology  which  treats  of  the  uses  of  grasses. 
The  uses  of  the  grasses  and  their  products  are  so  many  and 
various  and  touch  so  many  industries  that  it  is  necessary 
to  define  the  limits  of  the  subject  as  it  will  be  considered 
in  this  work.  It  is  intended  so  far  as  practicable  to 
restrict  the  discussion  of  economic  agrostology  to  its 
botanical  phases.  The  methods  of  growing  grasses,  that 
is,  cultural  methods,  belong  more  properly,  in  case  of  the 
field  crops,  to  agronomy;  or,  in  case  of  the  ornamental 
species  to  horticulture.  The  methods  of  obtaining  the 
products  of  grasses  and  the  course  of  the  products  after 


INTRODUCTION  3 

they  leave  the  plant,  such  as  the  extraction  of  sugar  from 
sugar-cane,  or  the  threshmg  of  grain  and  its  subsequent 
conversion  into  flour  and  bread  or  into  starch  or  alcohol, 
may  belong  to  chemical  technology.  In  the  present  work 
it  is  proposed  to  emphasize  the  botany  connected  with 
the  economic  phases  of  agrostology,  but  information  will 
not  be  excluded  from  brief  mention  when  necessary  for  a 
proper  understanding  of  the  subject,  even  though  this 
information  would  fall  naturally  under  some  allied  branch 
such  as  agronomy. 

3.  Systematic  agrostology. — Systematic  agrostology 
treats  of  grasses  from  the  botanical  as  distinguished  from 
the  practical  or  economic  side.  Strictly  speaking  system- 
atic agrostology  should  be  synonymous  with  taxonomic 
agrostology;  that  is,  it  should  concern  itself  with  the 
botanical  classification  or  natural  relationship  of  grasses. 
In  the  present  work  it  includes  also  such  morphology  as 
is  necessary  for  a  proper  understanding  of  classification 
and  also  brief  references  to  ecology  and  some  general 
information  less  easily  classified. 

4.  The  uses  of  grasses. — In  a  future  chapter  grasses 
are  technically  defined  and  distinguished  from  other 
plants.  The  term  grass  is  generally  understood  to  include 
herbaceous  plants  with  narrow  leaves,  such  as  timothy, 
blue-grass,  and  redtop.  The  farmer  often  understands  by 
grass  any  small  herbaceous  plant,  especially  such  as  is 
used  for  forage.  In  this  sense  he  includes  among  the 
grasses  such  leguminous  plants  as  alfalfa  and  clover. 
There  are  a  number  of  plants  with  narrow,  grass-like 
leaves  that  also  may  be  confused  with  the  grasses.  Among 
such  plants  are  the  sedges,  rushes,  and  certain  lilies  or 
lily  allies.  On  the  other  hand  the  layman  may  not  recog- 
nize as  grasses  the  larger  members  of  the  family,  such  as 


A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


corn,  sugar-cane,  the  giant  reed,  and  the  bamboos.  In 
the  popular  mind  even  the  grains  may  be  excluded  from 
the  idea  of  grasses.  Without  introducing  at  this  point 
the  exact  botanical  definition  of  a  grass,  it  may  be  said 
that  grasses  include  such  representative  plants  as  timo- 
thy, wheat,  corn,  sugar-cane  and  bamboos,  but  exclude 
the  clovers,  the  sedges,  and  the  rushes. 

5.  The  value  of  farm  crops. — The  total  value  of  all 
crops  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was  $5,487,- 
161,000.*  In  this  respect,  Illinois  leads  among  the  states. 
The  following  table  gives  the  relative  rank  of  the  first 
ten  states; 

TABLE  I 

Total  Valtje  (Dollahs)  of  All  Farm  Crops  in  1909  for  the  Ten 

Leading  States 

1.  Illinois $372,270,470         6.  Missouri       .    .    .$220,663,724 

2.  Iowa 314,666,298         7.  Kansas     ....   214,859,597 

3.  Texas 298,133,466         8.   New  York    .    .    .   209,168,236 

4.  Ohio 230,337,981  9.  Indiana     ....    204,209,812 

5.  Georgia 226,595,436       10.  Nebraska      .    .    .    196,125,632 

The  total  value  of  the  leading  crops  indicates  the 
relative  importance  of  those  derived  from  the  grass 
family  as  compared  with  those  from  other  families : 


TABLE  II 
Total  Value  (Dollars)  of  the  Leading  Crops  in  1909 

Cereals $2,665,539,714 

Hay  and  forage 824,004,877 

Tobacco      104,302,856 

Cotton  and  cotton-seed 824,696,287 

Sugar  crops 61,648,942 

Vegetables      418,110,154 

Fruits  and  nuts 222,024,216 

Forest  products  of  farms 195,306,283 

The  total  valuation  in  Table  I  does  not  include  forest 
products  except  such  as  are  produced  on  farms.     The 

*The  statistics  of  this  and  other  tables  are  taken  from  the  Thirteenth  Census 
of  the  United  States,  Vol.  V. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

value  of  cereals  includes  that  of  buckwheat  ($9,330,592), 
which  is  not  a  grass.  To  the  value  of  hay  and  forage 
might  be  added  that  of  grass  seed  ($15,137,683)  classed 
under  "other  grains  and  seeds."  Under  "vegetables"  is 
included  potatoes  as  the  most  important  single  crop. 

It  will  be  observed  from  Table  II  that  the  value  of 
cereals  is  about  48  per  cent,  of  hay  and  forage  15  per  cent, 
and  of  cotton  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  value  of  all  farm 
crops.  By  including  grass  seed,  broom-corn,  sorghum, 
and  sugar-cane,  and  excluding  buckwheat,  it  is  found  that 
about  643^  per  cent  of  the  value  of  farm  crops  is  derived 
from  members  of  the  grass  family.  The  value  of  hay  and 
forage  does  not  include  that  of  pasture  and  range,  which 
if  taken  into  consideration  would  swell  enormously  the 
total  value  of  the  products  of  the  grass  family. 


CHAPTER  II 

ECONOMIC  CLASSIFICATION  OF  GRASSES 

According  to  their  uses,  grasses  may  be  classified  into 
three  main  divisions, — grains,  forage  plants  and  lawn 
grasses;  and  four  minor  divisions, — ornamentals,  soil- 
binders,  sugar-producing  grasses,  and  textile  grasses, 
leaving  a  few  unclassified.  Another  category  of  grasses, 
the  weeds,  being  the  antithesis  of  useful  plants,  might  be 
included  under  economic  grasses.  A  special  chapter  is 
devoted  to  them  (Chapter  IX). 


6.  The  term  grain  is  applied  to  those  grasses  whose 
fruit  is  used  for  food  or  for  stock-feed.  The  fruit  or  seed 
is  technically  a  caryopsis  (Par.  162),  or  in  popular  lan- 
guage, a  grain.  The  common  grains  are  corn,  sorghum, 
wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  rice,  millet. 

7.  Uses  of  the  grains  for  food. — The  seeds  are  rich  in 
starch  and  usually  contain  also  a  considerable  quantity 
of  protein.  For  this  reason  they  are  eminently  fitted  for 
use  as  food.  In  the  United  States,  the  grain  of  sorghum 
and  millet  is  not  used  for  human  food,  although  both  are 
extensively  used  for  this  purpose  in  some  parts  of  the  Old 
World,  especially  among  primitive  peoples.  Oats,  rye 
and  barley,  thou,2;h  used  to  a  limited  extent,  are  of  secon- 
dary importance  as  food  plants  in  America.  The  other 
three  grains,  wheat,  corn,  and  rice,  are  of  fundamental 

(6) 


ECONOMIC  CLASSIFICATION  OF  GRASSES  7 

importance  as  food  plants  for  the  white  race  both  in 
America  and  the  Old  World.  Wheat,  oats,  barley,  and 
rye  are  usually  designated  by  the  American  farmer  as 
small  grains,  to  distinguish  them  from  corn.  Rice  is 
usually  not  included  in  this  loose  classification  because 
its  culture  is  confined  to  the  moist  regions  of  the  coast, 
and  it  is  not  found  in  the  grain-growing  districts  of  the 
country.  Emmer,  spelt,  and  other  species  of  wheat 
allied  to  our  common  bread  wheat,  are  grown  in  the  Old 
World,  and  the  first  mentioned  is  grown  to  a  limited 
extent  as  a  forage  crop  in  America.  (See  Farmers'  Bul- 
letins Nos.  139,  466.)  A  classification  of  the  grains  with 
their  botanical  names  is  given  in  a  future  chapter. 

All  the  grains  cultivated  in  the  United  States  are 
annuals.  Certain  plants  that  belong  to  other  families  are 
cultivated  in  various  parts  of  the  world  for  the  seed  which 
is  ground  into  flour  and  used  for  food,  and  hence  might  be 
classed  as  grains.  The  only  one  of  these  used  in  this 
country  is  the  buckwheat  (Fagopyru7n  esculentum  L.). 
Certain  others  are  cultivated  among  primitive  peoples  in 
other  parts  of  the  world,  as  for  example,  the  quinoa 
{Chenopodium  Quinoa  Willd.)  in  the  Andes.  The  seeds  of 
certain  wild  grasses,  especially  the  Indian  rice  {Zizajiia 
palustris),  have  been  used  by  the  North  American 
Indians  for  food. 

8.  Relative  importance  of  the  different  grains. — The 
grains  are  used  primarily  for  human  food.  Scarcely  less 
important  is  their  use  as  feed  for  domestic  animals. 
Wheat  and  rice  are  used  almost  exclusively  as  human  food, 
but  all  the  others  are  used  in  part  or,  in  the  United  States, 
almost  wholly  for  stock  feed.  In  Europe,  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  in  America,  barley  and  rye  serve  as  bread- 
stuffs,  while  millet  {Chcetochloa  italica)  and  proso  millet 


8  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

(Panicum  miliaceum)  are  used  for  porridge  or  mush.  In 
America  the  latter  grains  are  fed  to  stock  only.  Certain 
varieties  of  sorghum  furnish  an  important  part  of  the 
human  food-supply  in  Africa  and  China,  while  in  this 
country  other  varieties,  such  as  kafir,  are  used  as  stock 
feed.  The  most  important  grain  is  wheat,  which  is  nearly 
all  made  into  flour,  forming  the  principal  breadstuff. 
Corn  is  next  in  importance,  furnishing  a  large  part  of  the 
feed  of  domestic  animals  and  serving  also  to  a  considerable 
extent  for  human  food.  Oats  are  produced  chiefly  for 
feeding  horses,  though  some  goes  into  oatmeal  for  human 
food. 

In  this  country  barley  is  raised  chiefly  in  the  cooler 
regions,  and  is  of  importance  as  a  food  for  stock  in  those 
regions  where,  because  of  the  short  growing  season  or 
for  other  reasons,  corn  cannot  be  successfully  grown,  as  in 
much  of  the  West  and  Northwest.  Large  quantities  are 
also  used  in  the  brewing  industry.  Rye  as  a  grain  is  of 
comparatively  little  importance  in  the  United  States. 
Rice  is  of  secondar}^  importance  in  America  because, 
requiring  for  its  cultivation  a  warm  climate  and  land  that 
can  be  flooded,  the  area  adapted  to  its  growth  is  limited 
in  extent,  being  confined  to  the  low  coastal  region  from 
North  Carolina  to  eastern  Texas.  A  variety  known  as 
upland  rice  is  being  grown  in  Louisiana  and  eastern 
Texas  on  drier  land  and  is  cultivated  and  harvested  in 
the  same  manner  as  wheat.  In  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
Old  World,  especially  in  southeastern  Asia,  rice  is  the 
most  important  food  plant  grown. 

9.  Value  and  production  of  the  cereals. — The  value 
of  the  different  cereals  produced  in  the  United  States  in 
1909,  excluding  buckwheat,  is  shown  in  the  following 
table : 


ECONOMIC  CLASSIFICATION  OF  GRASSES  9 

TABLE  III 

The  Value  (Dollars)  of  Cereals  in  1909 

Com $1,438,553,919        Rye $20,421,812 

Wheat 657,656,801       Rice 16,019,607 

Oats 414,697,422       Kafir  and  Mile       .     .    10,816,940 

Barley 92,458,571       Emmer  and  Spelt   .    .    .5,584,050 

The  production  of  cereals  in  the  United  States  as 
compared  with  the  total  world  production  is  shown  in 
Table  IV  (see  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  581): 

TABLE  IV 
Production  (Bushels)  of  the  Cereals  for  the  United  States  and 
FOR  the  World  in  1913 
United  States  World 

Corn 2,446,998,000       Corn 3,607,359,000 

Wheat 763,380,000       Wheat 4,126,000,000 

Oats 1,121,768,000       Oats 4,672,168,000 

Barley 178,189,000       Barley 1,613,748,000 

Rye 41,381,000       Rye      1,884,646,000 

It  is  seen  from  this  table  that  the  United  States  pro- 
duced about  two-thirds  of  the  corn,  one-fifth  of  the  wheat, 
and  one-fourth  of  the  oats  of  the  world,  but  only  a  small 
part  of  the  barley  and  rye. 

Other  countries  leading  in  the  production  of  corn  are 
Argentina,  Hungary  and  Mexico;  of  wheat,  Russia,  Brit- 
ish India,  France  and  Canada;  of  oats,  Russia,  Germany, 
Canada  and  France;  of  barley,  Russia,  Germany  and 
Japan ;  of  rye,  Russia,  Germany  and  Austria. 

The  value  of  the  cereals  produced  by  the  ten  leading 
states  is  shown  in  Table  V: 

TABLE  V 

The  Value  (Dollars)  of  the  Cereals  Produced  in  1909  by  the  Ten 

Leading  States 

1.  Illinois $297,523,098         6.  North  Dakota     .$149,133,451 

2.  Iowa 230,205,315         7.   Missouri   ....    147,980,414 

3.  Kansas 169,109,449         8.   Minnesota    .    .    .    140,864,148 

4.  Nebraska    ....    153,666,652         9.  Ohio 137,907,934 

5.  Indiana 151,898,146       10.  South  Dakota  .   .     98,953,050 


10  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

TABLE  VI 

Production    (Bushels)    of    Corn    for   the    Five    Leading    States 

IN  1909 

1.  Illinois 390,218,676       4.  Missouri    ....     191,427,087 

2.  Iowa 341,750,460       5.  Nebraska  ....     180,132,807 

3.  Indiana 195,496,433 

TABLE  VII 

Production    (Bushels)    of  Wheat  for  the   Five   Leading  States 
IN  1909 

1.  North  Dakota     .    .116,781,886       4.  Nebraska     ....    47,685,745 

2.  Kansas 77,577,115       5.  South  Dakota    .    .     47,059,590 

3.  Minnesota    ....    57,094,412 

TABLE  VIII 
Production  (Bushels)  of  Oats  for  the  Five  Leading  States  in  1909 

1.  Illinois        ....     150,386,074       4.  Wisconsin     ....     71,349,038 

2.  Iowa       128,198,055       5.  North  Dakota    .    .     65,886,702 

3.  Minnesota     .    .    .       93,897,717 

TABLE  IX 

Production    (Bushels)   of  Barley  for  the   Five  Leadinc;   States 
IN  1909 

1.  Minnesota   ....     .34,927,773       4.  South  Dakota     .    .     22,396,1.30 

2.  California    ....     26,441,954       5.  Wisconsin     ....     22,156,041 

3.  North  Dakota    .    .     26,365,758 

TABLE  X 
Production  (Bushels)  of  Rye  for  the  Five  Leading  States  in  1909 

1.  Michigan 5,814,394       4.  Pennsylvania    .    .    .     3,496,603 

2.  Wisconsin 4,797,775       5.  New  York     ....     2,010,601 

3.  Minnesota    ....     4,426,028 

TABLE  XI 

Production  (Bushels)  of  Emmer  and  Spelt  for  the  Five  Leading 
States  in  1909 

1.  South  Dakota  .    .    .     6,098,982       4.  Kansas 785.362 

2.  North  Dakota  .    .    .     2,564,732       5.  Minnesota 757,339 

3.  Nebraska 1,221,975 

The  production  of  grain  from  kafir  and  milo  is  indicated 
in  Table  XII.  The  statistics  for  these  crops  when  grown 
for  forage  are  included  under  "coarse  forage:" 


ECONOMIC  CLASSIFICATION  OF  GRASSES         11 

TABLE  XII 

Production  (Bushels)  of  Grain  of  Kafir  and  Milo  for  the  Five 

Leading  States  in  1909 

1.  Texas 5,860,444       4.  California 938,049 

2.  Kansas 5,115,415       5.  New  Mexico    ....    543,350 

3.  Oklahoma     ....    4,658,752 

The  production  of  rice  has  shifted  in  recent  years 
from  the  South  Atlantic  coast  to  Louisiana  and  Texas, 
where  upland  rice  is  now  grown.  Over  nine-tenths  of 
the  acreage  of  this  crop  is  now  in  the  two  last- 
mentioned  states: 

TABLE  XIII 

Production  (Bushels)  of  Rough  Rice  for  the  Five  Leading  States 
IN  1909 

1.  Louisiana 10,839,973       4.  South  Carolina    .    .    .    541,570 

2.  Texas 8,991,745       5.  Georgia 148.698 

3.  Arkansas 1,282,830 


10.  All  the  grains  mentioned  may  be  used  for  the  pro- 
duction of  starch  and  alcohol. — From  the  commercial 
standpoint,  the  chief  starch-producing  plants  of  the 
world  are  corn,  wheat,  rice,  potatoes  and  arrow-root. 
Wheat  is  usually  too  valuable  a  human  food  to  be  used 
for  any  other  purpose.  Corn  is  the  chief  source  of  starch 
in  the  United  States,  although  the  other  grains  may  be 
used  when  available.  In  the  manufacture  of  starch  from 
corn,  the  grain  is  soaked  but  not  allowed  to  ferment.  The 
softened  kernels  are  then  ground  in  water  and  the  starch 
purified.  A  bushel  of  corn  will  yield  twenty-eight  pounds 
of  starch  and  thirteen  pounds  of  refuse  available  as 
cattle  food.  In  Europe  the  potato  is  the  chief  source  of 
starch. 


12  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

ALCOHOL 

11.  Another  important  product  of  the  grains  is  alco- 
hol.— For  this  purpose  the  starch  is  first  converted  by 
means  of  diastase  into  maltose,  a  kind  of  sugar,  and  the 
sugar  is  fermented  by  means  of  a  yeast  plant.  The  fer- 
mented liquor  is  distilled,  the  product  being  alcohol.  The 
diastase  is  an  unorganized  ferment  present  in  the  germi- 
nating grains.  This  converts  the  stored  starch  of  the 
seed  into  a  soluble  form,  a  sugar,  which  can  be  absorbed 
by  the  young  plant.  The  grain  to  be  used  as  a  source  of 
alcohol  is  allowed  to  germinate,  is  heated  to  kill  the 
embryos,  and  is  then  fermented  with  yeast.  This  con- 
verts the  sugar  into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide.  If  beer  is 
the  product  desired,  barley  is  the  grain  usually  employed 
and  the  process  is  stopped  at  this  point.  If  a  distilled 
liquor  is  desired,  the  material  is  distilled.  The  details  of 
the  manufacture  of  the  various  alcoholic  products  belong 
to  the  study  of  industrial  chemistry.  Wine  is  produced  by 
fermentation  from  the  juices  of  fruits  containing  sugar, 
especially  the  juice  of  the  grape.  This  liquid,  when  dis- 
tilled, produces  a  brandy. 

MISCELLANEOUS  USES  OF  THE  GRAINS 

12.  In  the  manufacture  of  starch  or  alcohol,  the  grains 
furnish  many  other  substances,  often  as  by-products. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  gluten  meal  and  corn 
oil,  the  one  from  the  protein  and  the  other  from  the  fat 
of  the  seed.  Corn  oil  is  expressed  from  the  grain  before 
the  starch  is  extracted,  or  it  is  obtained  from  the  residue 
in  the  fermentation  vats  in  the  manufacture  of  alcohol. 
Much  of  the  commercial  vinegar  is  produced  from  malt 


ECONOMIC  CLASSIFICATION  OF  GRASSES         13 

liquor,  the  alcohol  being  converted  into  acetic  acid  by- 
means  of  ferments.  Besides  being  used  for  the  production 
of  seed,  the  grasses  mentioned  above  are  extensively  used 
for  forage,  a  use  which  will  be  discussed  in  a  future  chap- 
ter. Corn  in  one  of  its  varieties  or  species,  sweet  corn,  is 
commonly  used  as  a  vegetable,  the  kernels  being  cooked 
when  in  the  milk  stage.  Other  varieties  are  cultivated  for 
ornament  and  for  pop-corn.  The  pith  of  the  stalks  of 
field  corn  has  been  used  for  many  purposes,  especially 
those  involving  the  production  of  pure  cellulose. 


CHAPTER  III 

FORAGE  PLANTS 

ScABCELY  less  important  than  the  use  of  grasses  for  the 
production  of  human  food  is  their  use  for  forage.  The 
domestic  animals,  upon  which  man  depends  in  part  for 
his  food,  in  their  turn  depend  upon  wild  or  cultivated 
forage  plants. 


l'"iG.  1.    Production  of  hay  and  forage  in  the  United  States.    One  large  dot  repre- 
sents 500,000  tons;  one  small  dot  represents  100,000  tons. 

13.  The  importance  of  forage  plants  is  shown  in  part 
by  the  statistics  given  in  the  census  report  under  the 
heading  "hay  and  forage,"  which  includes  plants  cut  and 
used  dry  or  green  for  forage,  but  does  not  include  plants 
used  for  pasturage.  The  figures  also  include  an  insig- 
(14) 


FORAGE  PLANTS 


15 


r^s;:: 


'- l___   _  [  ':••  •^^^^  *Jr^- -1 


Fig.  2.    Production  of  timothy  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  represents 
100,000  tons. 


Fig.  3.    Production  of  timothy  and  clover  mixed  in  the  United  States.    One  dot 
represents  100,000  tons. 


16 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Fig.  4.    Production  of  clover  alone  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  represents 
10,000  tons. 


Fig.  5.    Production  of  alfalfa  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  represents 
20,000  tons. 


FORAGE  PLANTS 


17 


nificant  amount  of  root  forage.  The  total  acreage  in  1909 
is  given  as  72,280,776,  which  produced  97,453,735  tons  of 
forage  valued  at  $824,004,877.  The  value  of  hay  and 
forage  as  compared  with  other  crops  is  shown  in  Table 
II  (Par.  5). 

The  statistics  partially  classify  the  hay  and  forage  as 
follows : 

TABLE  XIV 

Acreage,   Production,  and  Value  of  Hay  and  Forage  for   1909 
BY  Classes 


Acres 

Value 

(Tons) 

(Dollars) 

Timothy  alone        .    .    . 

14,686,393 

17,985,420 

$188,082,895 

Timothy     and     Clover 

mixed       

19,542,382 

24,748,555 

257,280,330 

Clover  alone 

2,443,263 

3,158,324 

29,334,356 

Alfalfa 

4,707,146 

11,859,881 

93,103,998 

Millet    or    Hungarian 

grass     

1,117,769 

1,546,533 

11,145,226 

Other    tame    or    culti- 

vated grasses       .    .    . 

4,218,957 

4,166,772 

44,408,775 

Wild,     salt    or    prairie 

grasses      

17,186,522 

18,383,574 

91,026,169 

Grains  cut  green        .    . 

4,324,878 

5,367,292 

61,686,131 

Coarse  forage      .... 

4,034,432 

9,982,305 

46,753,262 

The  production  of  hay  and  forage  of  the  ten  leading 
states  is  shown  in  Table  XV.  The  production  of  all  the 
states  is  graphically  shown  in  Fig.  1. 


TABLE  XV 

Production  (Tons)  of  Hay  and  Forage  of  the  Ten  Leading 
States  in  1909 


1.  Iowa   .    .    . 

2.  New  York 

3.  Minnesota 

4.  Kansas    .    . 

5.  Nebraska    . 


.  7,823,181  6.  Wisconsin       ....  5,002,644 

.  7,055,429       7.  Ohio 4,521,409 

.  6,036,747       8.  Illinois 4,354,466 

.  5,936,997       9.   California 4,327,130 

.  5,776,475     10.  Missouri 4,091,342 


18 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Fig.  G.    Production  of  millet  or  Hungarian  grass  in  the  United  States.    One 
dot  represents  5,000  tons. 


FiQ.  7.    Production  of  other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses  in  the  United  States. 
One  dot  represents  10,000  tons. 


FORAGE  PLANTS  19 

NATURAL  CLASSIFICATION 

14.  In  order  to  show  the  relative  position  of  grasses 
among  forage  plants,  a  classification  is  here  given  based 
upon  botanical  relationships.  Forage  plants  may  be 
divided  into  three  groups.  These  are:  grasses,  legumes, 
miscellaneous  plants.  The  first  group  includes  plants 
belonging  to  the  grass  family  (Par.  118). 


Fig.  8.   Production  of  wild,  salt  or  prairie  grasses  in  the  United  States.    One 
dot  represents  10,000  tons. 

15.  Legumes. — The  second  group  includes  those 
belonging  to  the  natural  family  Leguminosse  or  Fabaceae. 
The  plants  of  this  family  are  characterized  by  the  fruit, 
which  is  a  legume  or  pod.  To  this  family  belong  the 
clovers-,  alfalfa,  vetches,  beans,  peas,  and  many  similar 
plants.  The  importance  of  legumes  as  forage  plants 
depends  upon  their  high  protein  content,  and  hence  their 
greater  nutritive  value.  Another  important  character 
of  leguminous  plants  is  their  ability  to  transfer  nitrogen 


20 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Fig.  9.    Production  of  (grains  cut  green  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  represents 
10,000  tons. 


^ 


l*( 


•        •  »  •  ••  Si \         !    *   \ 


—"3 

-J 


Fig.  10.    Production  of  coarse  forage  in  the  United  States.    One  dot  represents 
20,000  tons. 


FORAGE  PLANTS  21 

from  the  air  to  the  soil,  thus  increasing  the  soil  fertility. 
This  transfer  is  accomplished  by  means  of  organisms  con- 
tained in  nodules  upon  the  roots  of  legumes,  these  organ- 
isms, which  are  allied  to  bacteria,  being  able  to  extract 
free  nitrogen  from  the  air.  The  accumulated  nitrogen 
is  in  part  passed  on  to  the  host  plant.  After  the  removal 
or  death  of  the  latter,  the  roots  or  such  portions  as  remain 
in  the  earth  return  to  the  soil  in  a  form  available  for 
absorption  such  nitrogen  as  was  stored  in  them.  For  this 
reason  the  fertility  of  soils  is  increased  by  the  growing  of 
legumes,  the  following  crops  being  correspondingly 
improved.  The  various  grasses  cultivated  for  forage  are 
usually  grown  in  combination  with  legumes  either  simulta- 
neously or  successively,  in  order  to  increase  the  nutritive 
value  of  the  product  and  at  the  same  time  to  retain  the 
fertility  of  the  soil. 

16.  Miscellaneous. — The  third  group  of  forage  plants 
includes  all  plants  that  do  not  belong  to  the  grasses  or 
the  legumes.  Certain  plants  of  the  mustard  family, 
especially  rape  (see  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  164),  are  cul- 
tivated for  forage.  Most  of  the  plants  of  this  group,  with 
the  exception  of  rape,  are  native  range  plants,  deriving 
their  importance  from  their  presence  in  arid  or  semi- 
arid  regions.  The  most  important  of  those  found  in 
America  are  the  salt  bushes  (species  of  Atriplex)  (see 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  108),  winter  fat  {Eurotia  lanata 
(Pursh)  Moq.)  and  the  prickly  pear  cactuses  (species  of 
Opuntia).  The  cultivation  of  the  opuntias  has  recently 
been  undertaken  in  the  southwestern  states  and  gives 
much  promise  (see  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  483).  Species  of 
Plantago,  known  to  ranchmen  as  Indian  wheat,  are 
important  winter  grazing  plants  for  sheep  in  the  desert 
regions  of  Arizona  and  California. 


22  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

CLASSIFICATION   OF    FORAGE    PLANTS 
ACCORDING   TO   USE 

17.  According  to  the  way  in  which  they  are  usea, 
forage  plants  may  be  divided  into  three  classes.  These 
are:  pasture  plants,  meadow  plants,  soiling  and  silage 
plants. 

PASTURE   PLANTS 

18.  Pasture  plants  in  the  widest  sense  are  those  which 
furnish  forage  in  situ,  that  is,  those  upon  which  stock 
graze,  A  pasture  is  an  area  supporting  or  containing  pas- 
ture plants.  In  the  restricted  sense  a  pasture  is  a  fenced 
area.  In  some  localities  the  term  is  further  restricted  to 
areas  of  cultivated  plants.  Small  pastures  or  areas  of 
turf  are  sometimes  known  as  paddocks.  Pastures  in  the 
general  sense  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  native 
pastures  and  cultivated  pastures. 

Native  pastures 

19.  Native  pastures  include  all  areas  of  native  vegeta- 
tion upon  which  stock  is  grazed.  Fenced  pastures  are 
common  throughout  the  United  States  in  connection  with 
all  farming  operations  that  include  the  care  of  live-stock. 
Such  pastures  may  include  native  prairie  grass  land,  as  is 
frequently  the  case  in  the  region  between  the  Mississippi 
River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  or  they  may  include  areas 
that  are  wooded,  that  are  rocky  or  sterile,  that  are  too 
wet,  or  that  are  otherwise  not  well  suited  to  field  crops. 

20.  Ranges. — Unfenced  native  pasture  land  is  usually 
referred  to,  especially  in  the  western  half  of  the  United 
States,  as  range,  and  animals  feeding  or  grazing  upon  such 


FORAGE  PLANTS  23 

areas  are  said  to  be  upon  the  range.  During  the  last  half 
of  the  last  century  vast  areas  in  the  West  were  utilized 
as  range  for  stock,  chiefly  cattle  and  sheep.  The  usual 
practice  in  raising  stock  under  range  conditions  is  the 
ranch  system.  The  ranch  is  the  headquarters  for  the  owner 
or  manager  of  the  farm  and  the  stock.  Here  are  the 
necessary  buildings  and  other  equipment.  This  central 
area  is  located  near  a  stream  or  other  water-supply,  and 
more  or  less  of  the  land  in  the  vicinity  is  owned  by  the 
ranchman.  The  land  lying  beyond  the  limits  of  the  ranch 
is  open  range,  that  is,  unoccupied  land,  owned  usually 
by  the  federal  government,  by  the  state,  or  by  the  bond- 
aided  railroads.  Such  land  at  that  time  was  of  little 
value  unless  there  was  access  to  water.  The  result  of 
these  conditions  was  that  the  valley  land  along  the 
streams  was  purchased  for  the  use  of  the  ranches,  this 
ownership  giving  the  use  and  virtual  control  of  an  indefi- 
nite area  on  the  upland  beyond.  The  cattle  or  sheep  were 
herded  on  this  range,  the  distance  traveled  being  limited 
by  the  necessity  of  returning  from  time  to  time  for 
water.  Sheep  are  able  to  obtain  water  by  eating  snow, 
hence  they  can  be  herded  during  the  winter  upon  desert 
regions  lacking  the  ordinary  water-supply,  provided  there 
is  sufficient  snowfall.  It  is  therefore  customary  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  the  West  to  herd  sheep  in  the 
mountains  in  the  summer  and  take  them  out  on  the 
desert  in  the  winter. 

Within  recent  years  the  demand  for  farm  land  has 
increased  and  the  amount  of  open  range  has  correspond- 
ingly decreased.  Ranchmen  in  many  cases  have  been 
obliged  to  buy  and  fence  pasture  land  for  their  stock. 
Another  modification  of  the  original  ranch  system  results 
from  the  policy  adopted  by  the  federal  government  in 


24  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

connection  with  the  national  forests.  These  reserves  were 
formerly  available  as  open  range,  but  now  stock  is  excluded 
except  as  permission  is  obtained  for  grazing  by  leasing. 
The  terms  of  the  lease  provide  for  a  maximum  number  of 
stock  at  a  definite  price  a  head  to  graze  over  a  limited 
area  for  a  limited  season.  In  the  open  range  system  it  was 
customary  for  the  ranchmen  to  arrange  among  them- 
selves the  use  of  the  range.  As  they  did  not  own  or  lease 
the  open  range  they  could  not  keep  out  rival  ranchmen 
except  by  force.  This  not  infrequently  gave  rise  to  strife, 
sometimes  accompanied  by  bloodshed,  between  the 
opposing  ranchmen  or  their  herders,  especially  between 
the  cattlemen  and  the  sheepmen.  The  especial  seriousness 
of  the  contests  between  the  cattlemen  and  the  sheepmen 
arose  from  the  fact  that  cattle  will  not  willingly  graze  after 
sheep  probably  because  of  some  odor,  whereas  sheep  will 
graze  after  cattle.  Furthermore,  sheep  graze  the  forage 
much  more  closely  than  do  cattle,  so  that  after  a  band  of 
sheep  has  passed  over  an  area  there  is  little  or  nothing 
left  for  the  cattle. 

In  former  years  ranchmen  of  the  more  southern 
regions  carried  their  stock  through  the  winter  upon  the 
range,  depending  upon  the  dry  but  nutritious  grass 
remaining  from  the  preceding  season.  Not  infrequently 
there  was  loss  of  stock  during  stormy  weather.  In  the 
northerly  regions,  and  now,  in  accordance  with  the  best 
practice  also  in  the  South,  supplementary  feed  is  supplied 
to  stock  during  the  winter  months. 

21.  Overgrazing. — Wild  pasture  land  will  permit  of  a 
certain  amount  of  grazing  without  deterioration.  Beyond 
this  amount  the  grazing  capacity  becomes  progressively 
reduced.  This  condition  is  caused  partly  by  actual  injury 
to  the  vegetation,  partly  by  the  reduction  of  its  recupera- 


LIBKAlti   UF 

K  c.  STATE  coLiaseas 


FORAGE  PLANTS  25 

tive  power,  and  partly  by  the  fact  that  grazing  animals 
select  the  best  plants,  thus  exterminating  the  valuable 
species,  whose  place  is  taken  by  the  unpalatable  or  worth- 
less weeds.  Range  that  has  been  grazed  beyond  its  ability 
to  recuperate  is  said  to  be  overgrazed,  and  when  the  num- 
ber of  stock  on  a  given  area  is  too  great,  the  range  is  said 
to  be  overstocked.  The  amount  of  stock  which  the  range 
will  carry  depends  upon  the  kind  and  amount  of  vegeta- 
tion, the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  rainfall,  and  various 
other  conditions.  The  carrying  capacity  can  be  told 
only  by  experience.  A  range  must  be  exceptionally  good 
to  average  for  a  season  one  cow  to  every  5  acres,  and  such 
ranges  would  be  found  only  in  the  less  arid  portion  of  the 
Great  Plains  where  the  grass  is  abundant. 

Overgrazing  may  be  the  result  of  necessity.  The 
ranchman  having  in  his  possession  a  certain  amount  of 
stock  may  be  confronted  with  an  unfavorable  season  or  a 
diminished  range.  As  the  free  range  decreases  owing  to 
the  use  of  the  land  for  general  farming,  or  is  bought  up 
and  fenced  in  by  the  ranchmen  for  self-protection,  the 
tendency  to  overstock  becomes  greater.  Too  often  under 
these  conditions,  the  stockman  is  confronted  with  the 
necessity  of  providing  feed  for  the  stock  he  has,  without 
regard  to  the  ultimate  welfare  of  the  range. 

22.  Rejuvenating  wom-out  ranges. — As  vast  regions 
have  been  made  temporarily  unfit  for  grazing  by  the 
attempt  to  carry  on  the  range  for  successive  seasons  more 
stock  than  it  would  bear,  there  has  been  an  increasing 
pressure  for  methods  that  would  quickly  rejuvenate  these 
areas.  It  has  been  thought  that  the  seeds  of  grasses  or 
other  plants  that  are  as  well  or  better  adapted  to  the 
conditions  than  was  the  preceding  vegetation  might  be 
sown  on  the  range  to  advantage.   Many  experiments  have 


26  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

been  tried  along  this  line  but  with  little  success.  The  area 
involved  is  too  large  and  the  expense  is  too  great.  There  is 
the  further  difficulty  of  finding  plants  better  adapted  to 
the  conditions  than  those  that  primarily  occupied  the  soil. 

The  plants  that  tend  to  come  in  to  replace  those  sub- 
dued by  grazing  are  usually  weedy  annuals  that  have 
little  forage  value.  Such  are  the  numerous  species  of  Old 
World  brome-grasses  that  are  now  so  common  on  the 
Pacific  slope  and  in  some  portions  of  the  region  to  the 
east  of  this.  There  is  one  exception  to  this,  the  annual 
herbaceous  plant  known  as  alfilaria  or  ''filaree"  (Er odium 
cicutarium  (L.)  L'  Herit.)  a  member  of  the  geranium 
family.  This  is  an  excellent  forage  plant  and  is  gradually 
spreading  on  the  ranges  of  the  Southwest. 

The  only  practicable  method  to  rejuvenate  worn-out 
ranges  is  to  give  them  rest.  If  stock  is  kept  from  them  they 
will  in  time  return  to  a  condition  of  productiveness.  The 
length  of  time  necessary  for  an  overgrazed  range  to  recu- 
perate depends  upon  many  conditions.  If  the  overgrazing 
has  been  for  a  short  period  a  single  season  of  rest  may  be 
sufficient.  If  a  considerable  portion  of  the  original  vege- 
tation has  been  destroyed  two  or  three  seasons  may  be 
necessary.  In  the  latter  case  the  resulting  vegetation  will 
probably  be  different  from  the  original  and  may  be  less 
valuable.  Thoughtful  ranchmen  are  learning  to  conserve 
their  ranges  by  regulation  and  rotation  and  by  limiting 
the  stock  to  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  range.  (See 
Bur.  PI.  Ind.  Bulletin  No.  117  and  Yearbook  for  1906.) 

Range  grasses 

23.  The  wild  plants  upon  the  range,  unless  they  are 
positively  distasteful  because  of  bitter  or  acrid  substances 


FORAGE   PLANTS  27 

or  are  protected  by  spines,  are  all  more  or  less  grazed  by 
stock,  especially  sheep.  If  there  is  an  abundance  of  forage 
the  animals  select  the  more  palatable  and  nutritious  spe- 
cies. In  overstocked  areas  the  animals  are  forced  more 
and  more  to  eat  unpalatable  or  even  poisonous  species. 

On  the  prairies  and  plains  of  the  western  states,  the 
grasses  form  the  chief  element  of  the  forage.  The  most 
important  single  species  probably  is  buffalo-grass  (Par. 
245).  This  is  the  dominant  species  on  the  Great  Plains 
from  the  Dakotas  to  Texas  and  from  the  Rocky  Mountains 
to  the  100th  meridian  and  beyond.  This  region  is  collo- 
quially known  as  the  "short-grass  country,"  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  prairie  regions  to  the  east,  where  tall  grasses 
prevail.  On  the  plains  of  Texas  and  northern  Mexico, 
the  buffalo-grass  is  gradually  replaced  by  a  species  of 
similar  habit,  the  curly  mesquite  (Par.  212). 

The  grama-grasses  in  numerous  species  in  the  West 
and  Southwest  and  on  the  table-land  of  Mexico  form  an 
important  and  nutritive  constituent  of  the  ranges.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  the  blue  grama,  called  in  the 
Southwest  merely  grama,  and  on  the  plains  grama-grass, 
extending  from  Manitoba  to  South  America.  Like  buf- 
falo-grass it  is  a  "short  grass"  and  is  frequently  confused 
with  that  species.  The  three  grasses,  buffalo-grass,  curly 
mesquite  and  grama-grass,  form  a  nutritious  forage  after 
they  have  been  cured  in  the  autumn  by  the  dry  climate 
of  this  region.  Hence  the  range  will  support  stock  through- 
out the  winter  if  the  conditions  are  favorable.  Fall  or 
winter  rains,  or  an  early  frost,  decrease  the  value  of  the 
forage. 

Other  especially  important  western  grasses  are  the 
various  species  of  Agropyron,  Andropogon  and  Muhlen- 
bergia.   Pine-grass  is  important  in  Oregon  and  Washing- 


28  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

ton.  The  term  "bunch-grass"  is  applied  to  diverse  spe- 
cies in  different  regions.  The  name  refers  to  any  species 
that  forms  conspicuous  tufts.  In  western  Kansas  it  refers 
to  Sporobolus  airoides;  in  Oregon  to  Agropyron  spicatum; 
in  other  locaHties  to  various  other  species.  (See  Yearbook 
for  1900.) 


CHAPTER   IV 

CULTIVATED  PASTURES 

Experience  has  shown  that,  conditions  being  equal,  a 
greater  amount  of  forage  can  be  g^o^vn  from  a  given  area 
if  the  plants  used  are  cultivated.  In  the  broad  sense,  the 
term  cultivation  is  here  used  to  include  the  sowing  of  seed 
or  the  setting  out  of  plants.  But  cultivation  in  the  usual 
sense  means  also  that  the  soil  has  been  prepared  for  the 
reception  of  the  seeds  or  plants  and  may  include  still 
further  the  subsequent  use  of  tillage  implements.  Culti- 
vated pastures,  besides  producing  a  greater  amount  of 
forage,  have  the  further  advantage  of  the  choice  of  plants 
to  be  grown.  Forage  plants  are  cultivated  for  several 
purposes,  as  previously  indicated,  but  in  the  present 
chapter  only  their  cultivation  for  pasture  is  discussed. 
Cultivated  pastures  are  usually  known  as  tame  pastures, 
to  distinguish  them  from  wild  or  native  pastures.  In 
regions  where  native  pastures  are  rare,  the  term  pasture 
may  imply  that  the  area  has  been  seeded.  Tame  pastures 
are  conveniently  divided  into  two  kinds,  permanent  and 
temporary. 

PERMANENT    PASTURES 

24.  As  permanent  pastures  are  here  included  all  pas- 
tures that  are  seeded  down  with  the  intention  of  using 
them  for  grazing  for  more  than  one  season.  The  plants 
used  for  permanent  pasture  are  primarily  grasses. 
Legumes  and  other  plants  may  be  mixed  with  the  grasses 
(29) 


30  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

or  may  be  used  temporarily  or  incidentally  for  grazing 
but  (except  sometimes  alfalfa)  are  never  used  alone  for 
permanent  pasture. 

25.  The  two  most  important  pasture-grasses  are  blue- 
grass  and  Bermuda-grass.  Other  pasture-grasses  of  some 
importance  are  redtop,  brome-grass,  orchard-grass,  mea- 
dow fescue.  Still  others  are  occasionally  sown  in  mixtures 
but  in  the  aggregate  are  almost  negligible  from  the  com- 
mercial standpoint.  Some  of  these  are  the  various  fescue 
grasses,  such  as  sheep's  fescue  and  red  fescue,  rye-grass, 
velvet-grass,  and  a  few  others.  The  most  important 
legume  used  in  permanent  pasture  mixtures  is  white 
clover. 

Blue-grass 

26.  Blue-grass  is  the  standard  pasture-grass  in  the 

region  lying  east  of  the  Great  Plains  and  north  of  Arkansas 
and  North  Carolina  and  extending  southward  in  the 
mountains.  It  is  used  occasionally  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  but  it  does  not  succeed  in  the  southern  states. 
It  thrives  best  on  limestone  soils  and  is  not  adapted  to 
acid  soils.  The  famous  "blue-grass  region"  of  Kentucky 
lies  in  the  limestone  country  in  the  central  and  northern 
part  of  the  state.  The  species  is  commonly  called  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass  and  in  some  localities,  especially  north- 
ward, it  is  called  June-grass. 

Blue-grass  is  an  aggressive  species  and,  in  soil  adapted 
to  its  growth,  tends  to  spread.  It  thrives  in  partial  shade, 
and,  in  regions  where  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry,  it 
invades  the  open  woods,  where  it  furnishes  valuable 
pasture.  An  excellent  way  to  utilize  brush-land  or  open 
timber-land  is  to  clear  out  the  underbrush  and  weeds  and 
sow  the  land  to  blue-grass.   At  first  it  is  necessary  to  keep 


CULTIVATED  PASTURES  31 

down  the  brush  and  weeds,  but  later  the  blue-grass 
dominates  the  undergrowth.  In  the  alfalfa  regions  of  the 
West,  blue-grass  is  often  looked  upon  as  a  weed,  because 
of  its  tendency  to  invade  alfalfa  fields. 

The  chief  objections  to  blue-grass  are  the  tendency 
to  lie  dormant  during  the  hot  dry  midsummer,  the  diffi- 
culty in  establishing  a  stand,  and  the  low  forage  yield. 
In  spite  of  these  objections,  it  leads  all  other  pasture- 
grasses  in  the  region  where  it  thrives. 

27.  Establishing  a  blue-grass  pasture. — Blue-grass  is 
rather  difficult  to  start,  as  the  growth  is  slow  the  first 
year.  About  sixty  pounds  of  seed  an  acre  are  sown.  It 
is  important  to  have  good  seed.  Many  of  the  failures  to 
establish  a  good  stand  are  due  to  sowing  seed  of  low  vital- 
ity. If  the  seed  is  good,  thirty  pounds  to  the  acre  should 
be  sufficient.  The  seed  is  sown  on  prepared  land,  or  with 
other  crops  such  as  clover,  wheat  or  timothy,  or  with 
meadow  grasses  or  in  early  spring  upon  the  snow  or  upon 
frozen  ground.  The  object  of  sowing  with  other  crops  is 
to  utilize  the  land  while  the  blue-grass  is  becoming  estab- 
hshed.  In  regions  adapted  to  its  growth,  blue-grass  will 
form  a  permanent  pasture,  since  few  plants  can  drive  it 
out  unless  it  is  overgrazed. 

Bermuda-grass 

28.  Bermuda  is  the  standard  pasture-grass  for  the 

South,  occupying  there  the  position  of  relative  importance 
among  grasses  that  blue-grass  does  in  the  North.  Its  dis- 
tribution is  from  the  blue-grass  area  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  west  to  east  Texas.  Bermuda-grass  is  common  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  both  hemispheres  and  in  the  United 
States  extends  into  the  arid  regions  of  the  West.    In  the 


32  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

latter  regions  it  is  of  little  importance  from  a  commercial 
standpoint,  since  the  climate  is  too  dry  for  its  develop- 
ment without  irrigation.  Under  irrigation,  other  forage 
crops  give  better  results.  Although  Bermuda-grass  is 
found  under  a  variety  of  conditions,  it  is  not  a  shade- 
loving  plant  and  thrives  best  in  open  ground.  On  the 
uplands  of  the  South  it  leads  all  other  pasture  grasses  but 
in  the  moist  lowland  along  streams  and  along  the  coast 
it  has  a  few  competitors,  especially  carpet-grass  (Par, 
215)  and  St.  Augustine-grass  (Par.  223).  It  "w-ithstands 
heat  and  drought,  is  aggressive,  forming  a  permanent 
pasture,  and  is  nutritious.  Sometimes  legumes  (espe- 
cially bur  clover  (Medicago  arabica)  and  Japan  clover 
(Lespedeza  striata)  are  combined  with  Bermuda. 

29.  Establishing  a  Bermuda  pasture. — There  are  two 
methods  of  starting  Bermuda :  by  sowing  the  seed  and  by 
planting  cuttings.  The  seed  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  six  to 
eight  pounds  to  the  acre  and  pressed  in  with  a  roller. 
The  more  usual  method  is  to  plant  cuttings  of  the  stem  or 
pieces  of  the  sod.  These  are  dropped  at  intervals  in  shallow 
furrows  and  covered  with  a  plow  or  dropped  upon  a  pre- 
pared surface  and  pressed  in  with  the  foot. 

Bermuda-grass  is  very  aggressive,  for  which  reason 
it  becomes  a  bad  weed  when  it  invades  cultivated  fields. 
In  cultivated  soil  it  produces  hard,  vigorous  rootstocks 
that  give  it  the  name  of  wire-grass.  It  can  be  eradicated 
by  plowing  in  the  hot  weather  of  midsummer,  or  by 
smothering  out  by  means  of  rank-growing  shade  crops, 
such  as  cowpeas.  Bermuda-grass  does  not  usually  pro- 
duce seed  in  the  United  States  except  in  Florida,  Arizona 
and  California;  hence  it  invades  fields  slowly  and  with 
care  can  be  kept  out  without  much  difficulty.  The  com- 
mercial seed  is  imported. 


CULTIVATED  PASTURES  33 

Other  pasture-grasses 

30.  Besides  the  two  important  and  well-known  pasture- 
grasses  mentioned  for  the  North  and  the  South,  there  are 
several  others  that  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Each  has  its  special  merits  and  its  peculiar  drawbacks. 
The  acreage  of  some  of  these  grasses  is  large  but  in  all 
cases  falls  far  below  that  of  blue-grass  and  Bermuda- 
grass, 

31.  Brome-grass. — This  is  variouslj'-  known  as  awnless 
brome,  Hungarian -brome,  and  Bromus  inermis,  the  last 
being  its  botanical  name.  It  is  one  of  the  few  grasses  that 
has  been  successfully  introduced  into  cultivation  in 
recent  times.  The  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture and  the  state  experiment  stations  have  demonstrated 
its  adaptability  to  the  conditions  prevailing  in  the  north- 
western states.  It  has  been  shown  to  be  an  excellent 
pasture-grass  for  the  region  from  Kansas  to  Manitoba 
and  west  to  Washington,  which  is  too  dry  for  the  eastern 
grasses.  It  gives  good  results  east  of  this  region,  but  must 
there  compete  with  timothy,  clover  and  blue-grass. 
Brome-grass  is  a  native  of  Europe.  (See  Bur.  PI.  Ind. 
Bulletin  No.  111.) 

32.  Redtop. — This  is  a  well-known  widely  distributed 
meadow-grass  which  will  be  further  discussed  under 
meadow-grasses.  (Par.  48.)  Its  chief  importance  as  a 
pasture-grass  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  thrives  on  acid 
soil  where  blue-grass  fails.  It  is  a  good  pasture-grass  for 
moist  localities  in  the  timothy  region  and  especially  in  the 
coastal  region  from  Virginia  to  New  England.  Redtop  is 
called  "herd's-grass"  in  Pennsylvania  and  in  some 
other  localities. 

33.  Orchard-grass. — This  is  an  excellent  species  for 
c 


34  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

the  blue-grass  region,  especially  when  combined  with 
other  grasses.  Its  chief  faults  are  that  it  grows  in  tus- 
socks and  that  the  seed  is  expensive.  The  former  draw- 
back militates  chiefly  against  its  use  as  a  meadow-grass 
as  the  hummocks  interfere  with  mowing.  It  withstands 
drought  somewhat  better  than  does  timothy  or  blue-grass, 
hence  is  useful  along  the  western  edge  of  the  timothy 
region.  In  eastern  Kansas,  it  is  used  as  a  pasture-grass  in 
combination  with  meadow  fescues.  (See  Bur.  PL  Ind. 
Bulletin  No.  100.) 

34.  Meadow  fescue. — This  is  a  common  European 
forage-grass  which  has  many  excellent  qualities  but  has 
not  been  extensively  grown  in  the  United  States.  It  does 
not  compete  with  timothy  and  blue-grass  chiefly  because 
the  seed  is  more  expensive  and  less  reliable,  faults  it  shares 
with  several  other  good  grasses.  It  is  adapted  to  the  same 
region  as  timothy  and  blue-grass.  A  taller  form  or 
agricultural  variety  with  more  open  panicle  is  grown 
under  the  name  of  tall  fescue.  The  seed  of  meadow  fescue 
produced  in  the  United  States  is  nearly  all  grown  in  east- 
ern Kansas.  Meadow  fescue  is  sometimes  incorrectly 
called  English  blue-grass.  (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No. 
361.) 

35.  Rye-grasses. — Of  these  there  are  two  kinds,  the 
English  rye-grass  and  Italian  rye-grass.  These  are  both 
standard  forage-grasses  of  Europe  but  are  infrequent  in 
cultivation  in  this  country.  They  are  excellent  grasses 
and  deserve  a  wider  use.  The  poor  quality  and  high  cost 
of  the  seed,  together  with  the  traditional  importance 
attached  to  timothy  and  blue-grass,  probably  account 
for  their  restricted  use. 

Canada  blue-grass. — This  grass  will  not  compete  with 
Kentucky  blue-grass  on  limestone  soils,  but  in  portions 


CULTIVATED  PASTURES  35 

of  the  humid  region  where  the  latter  does  not  thrive  it 
serves  a  useful  purpose.  Nearly  all  the  American  seed  is 
grown  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  Canada.  (See  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  402.) 

Tall  meadow  oat-grass. — This  is  a  good  grass  with  poor 
seed  habits,  the  seed  shattering  out  badly  in  harvesting 
and  handling.  The  species  is  adapted  to  the  timothy 
region  but  is  only  sparingly  grown. 

Velvet-grass. — This  species  is  of  little  value  except  on 
sterile  soil  where  other  grasses  will  not  grow.  It  is  well 
established  on  the  Pacific  coast,  especially  from  northern 
California  to  British  Columbia,  where  it  is  common  in 
swamps,  grass-land,  waste  places  and  open  ground  gen- 
erally. It  is  not  much  utilized  for  forage  except  on  the 
sandy  land  around  the  Columbia  River.  Animals  do  not 
relish  the  hay  unless  they  have  acquired  a  taste  for  it. 

36.  Southern  pasture-grasses. — In  the  moist  regions 
along  the  Gulf  coast,  carpet-grass  is  a  valuable  and 
nutritious  grass.  This  is  a  native  of  the  tropics  extending 
into  the  southern  United  States.  It  thrives  in  open,  moist 
land  where  it  forms  a  green  carpet.  It  is  not  cultivated, 
but  comes  into  natural  pastures  voluntarily  and  persists 
because  it  withstands  grazing  and  trampling.  Another 
species  found  especially  in  mucky  soil  along  the  Atlantic 
coast  from  South  Carolina  to  southern  Florida  is  St. 
Augustine-grass.  This  is  similar  in  its  habits  to  carpet- 
grass.    (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  509.) 

37.  Two  common  tropical  grasses,  Pard-grass  and 
Guinea-grass,  should  be  mentioned  although  except  in 
the  extreme  southern  portion  they  are  not  hardy  in  the 
United  States.  Par^-grass,  a  native  of  Brazil  and  cul- 
tivated in  the  lowlands  throughout  tropical  America, 
is  occasionally  used  for  pasture  in  southern  Florida  and 


36-  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

southern  Texas.  It  is  useful  in  wet  or  almost  swampy- 
land,  where  it  will  furnish  a  large  quantity  of  forage. 
Pard-grass  does  not  well  withstand  grazing  because  its 
extensive  stolons,  being  above  ground,  are  killed  or 
injured  by  trampling.  Guinea-grass  grows  on  drier  land 
than  that  best  suited  to  Para-grass.  It  is  extensively 
used  for  pasture,  hay  and  green  fodder  at  low  altitudes 
in  the  tropics.  It  withstands  grazing  well  and  its  numer- 
ous basal  shoots  furnish  a  large  amount  of  palatable 
forage. 

TEMPORARY    PASTURE 

38.  Temporary  pasture,  as  here  understood,  refers 
to  pasture  obtained  incidentally  from  plants  grown  for 
other  purposes,  or  to  that  obtained  from  annual  plants. 
The  usual  kind  of  temporary  pasture  is  that  from  plants 
grown  primarily  for  hay.  It  is  a  common  practice  to 
graze  meadows  after  the  hay  has  been  cut.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  the  meadow  is  not  grazed  too  closely  and 
the  plants  are  not  injured  by  the  trampling  of  animals  in 
wet  weather.  Alfalfa  is  commonly  grazed  in  the  West, 
where  this  may  be  the  chief  forage  crop  grown.  There  is 
objection  to  allowing  cattle  and  sheep  to  graze  on  alfalfa 
and  clover  since  these  legumes  are  likely  to  cause  bloat- 
ing. Fall-sown  grain  is  often  used  for  pasture,  and  stand- 
ing corn-stalks  furnish  considerable  fodder  after  the  corn 
has  been  removed  by  husking  in  the  field. 

Annual  plants  for  pasture 

39.  Grains,  especially  rye,  are  sometimes  grown 
primarily  for  pasture,  being  sown  usually  in  the  summer  or 
fall.   Sorghum  in  some  of  its  varieties  is  grown  for  pasture 


CULTIVATED  PASTURES  37 

in  the  South  and  Middle  West.  Rescue-grass  is  used  in 
some  parts  of  the  South  for  winter  pasture.  Rye-grass 
can  also  be  used  to  advantage  for  winter  pasture  in  the 
South  as  it  grows  rapidly  and  produces  feed  sooner  than 
perennial  pasture-grasses.  Rape  and  sometimes  other 
cruciferous  plants  such  as  turnips  and  kale  are  sown  for 
pastures.  Various  legumes  may  be  used  for  this  purpose, 
often  in  connection  with  their  use  as  green  manure  or  as  a 
cover-crop. 


CHAPTER  V 
MEADOW  PLANTS 

Meadow  plants  are  those  used  for  hay.  A  meadow  is 
an  area  upon  which  are  growing  plants  that  are  to  be  cut 
for  hay.  Meadows  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  two 
classes,  wild  or  native  meadows,  and  tame  or  cultivated 
meadows. 

The  hay  product  of  the  United  States  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  the  agricultural  crops,  the  total  yield  of  hay 
and  forage  according  to  the  thirteenth  census  being 
97,453,735  tons,  valued  at  $824,004,877. 

NATIVE    MEADOWS 

40.  There  arp  three  kinds  of  native  meadows,  accord- 
ing to  the  grass  that  grows  upon  them.  These  are  prairie, 
fresh  marsh,  and  salt  marsh.  In  all  cases  the  chief  portion 
of  the  forage  is  made  up  of  various  species  of  grasses,  the 
other  plants  being  incidental  or  even  harmful.  Prairie 
hay  is  cut  from  native  prairie  that  is  sufficiently  dry  to 
be  used  for  field  crops.  Because  available  for  cultiva- 
tion, the  area  of  prairie  meadow  is  decreasing  as  the  land 
is  gradually  broken  by  the  plow.  Open  grass-land,  such 
as  swales,  or  the  low  areas  along  streams  or  ponds  that  are 
intermediate  between  arable  land  and  swamps,  is  often 
reserved  permanently  for  meadow. 

In  the  prairie  region  and  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
Great  Plains,  the  chief  constituents  of  prairie  hay  are 
(38) 


MEADOW  PLANTS  39 

bluestem  {Andwpogon  furcatus),  little  bluestem  (Andro- 
pogon  scoparius),  switch -grass  (Panicum  virgatum), 
Indian  reed  (Sorghastrum  nutans),  purple-top  (Tridens 
flavus),  tall  grama  (Bouteloua  curtipendula) ,  and  wild  rye 
{Elymus  virginicus,  and  E.  canadensis).  In  the  swales 
or  "sloughs,"  as  they  are  called  in  that  region,  the  chief 
grass  is  cord-grass  or  slough-grass  {Spartina  Michauxiana). 
An  important  hay-grass  in  depressions  or  valleys  on 
the  plains  is  Colorado  bluestem  {Agropyron  Smithii). 
Throughout  the  mountain  regions  of  the  West  the  native 
hay  may  consist  of  a  great  variety  of  indigenous  grasses, 
the  species  of  Poa,  Calamagrostis,  Agropyron,  and  Ely- 
mus glaucus  usually  predominating. 

On  the  western  ranches  where  irrigation  water  is 
available,  it  is  customary  to  flood  the  meadow  land  in  the 
valleys.  If  too  much  water  is  applied,  or  if  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  on  the  meadow  for  too  long  a  time,  the  valuable 
grasses  are  gradually  replaced  by  less  nutritious  plants, 
especially  by  wire-grass,  which  is  a  kind  of  rush  (Juncus 
balticus  Willd.). 

41.  The  commercial  production  of  wild  hay  is  chiefly 
in  the  area  from  Oklahoma  to  Manitoba,  including  the 
eastern  portion  of  the  Great  Plains  and  extending  east- 
ward through  Minnesota  into  Wisconsin.  In  the  northern 
portion  of  this  area,  a  large  proportion  of  the  wild  hay  is 
cut  from  marsh  land,  the  most  important  constituents 
being  blue  joint  {Calamagrostis  canadensis)  and  reed  canary- 
grass  {Phalaris  arundinacea) .  Much  of  this  hay  land  is 
too  wet  for  cultivation.  At  the  time  of  harvest  the  soil  is 
sufficiently  dry  to  support  the  mower  and  horses.  In  the 
marshes  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  the  soil  is  so  moist 
that  broad  shoes  are  sometimes  attached  to  the  horses' 
feet  to  prevent  them  from  sinking  into  the  soft  ground. 


40  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

42.  Salt  marsh-grass  is  utilized  for  hay  in  many  locali- 
ties along  the  seacoast.  Large  areas  of  marsh  land  sub- 
ject to  the  diurnal  tides  or  to  occasional  high  tides  are 
useful  for  no  other  purpose  than  the  grass  crop  that  they 
produce.  When  utilized  for  hay  these  marshes  are  drained 
by  open  ditches.  In  some  cases  the  sea  is  kept  out  by 
dikes,  in  which  case  the  land  becomes  productive  and 
valuable.  The  hay  from  salt  marshes  is  of  considerable 
value  for  fodder,  the  value  depending  on  the  kind  of  grass 
and  the  degree  of  salinity  of  the  soil.  Much  of  this  hay 
is  used  for  litter  for  stock  and  for  packing-material.  The 
chief  constitutents  of  salt  marsh-hay  are  switch-grass 
(Panicum  virgatum),  little  bluestem  (Andropogon  scopa- 
rius),  black-grass,  a  kind  of  rush  (Juncus  Gerardii  Loisel.), 
all  of  value  for  forage,  and  several  species  of  Spartina,  or 
cord-grass  (Spartina  glabra  and  S.  juncea  being  the 
most  important),  these  latter  being  used  chiefly  for 
packing. 

TAME    MEADOWS 

43.  Tame  meadows  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
permanent  and  temporary.  It  is  only  to  the  former  class 
that  the  term  meadow  is  popularly  applied. 

Permanent  meadows 

44.  Permanent  meadows  are  those  that  have  been 
seeded  down  with  forage  plants  with  the  intention  of 
maintaining  them  for  a  series  of  years  to  produce  hay. 
The  chief  meadow  plants  used  in  the  United  States  are: 
of  the  legumes,  alfalfa,  red  clover  and  to  a  limited 
extent  alsike  clover;  among  the  grasses,  timothy  and 
redtop. 


MEADOW  PLANTS  41 

45.  Alfalfa  (Medicago  saliva  L.)  is  the  most  important 
forage  crop  in  the  United  States.  In  the  irrigated  regions 
of  the  West  it  is  almost  the  only  forage  plant  grown  and 
is  there  used  for  both  hay  and  pasture.  Alfalfa  was  intro- 
duced from  Europe  by  the  Spaniards  and  attained 
importance  in  our  western  states  simultaneously  with 
irrigation.  Its  use  spread  eastward  in  the  arid  and  semi- 
arid  regions  until  it  reached  the  borders  of  the  timothy 
region.  Within  recent  years  this  crop  has  been  success- 
fully introduced  in  many  parts  of  the  East  and  South.  It 
does  not  thrive  on  an  acid  soil,  hence  the  necessity  of  using 
lime  in  many  parts  of  the  East  in  preparing  the  land  for 
alfalfa.  Where  a  good  stand  is  obtained,  a  permanent 
meadow  is  formed,  yielding  cuttings  every  four  to  six 
weeks  during  the  growing  season,  two  or  three  cuttings 
in  the  more  northern  regions,  as  many  as  ten  in  the  hot 
southern  valleys  of  California.  The  meadow  lasts  indefi- 
nitely, but  sooner  or  later  suffers  from  the  incursions  of 
various  weeds  and  must  be  broken  up  and  reseeded.  As 
alfalfa  is  not  a  grass,  it  will  not  be  further  discussed  here, 
but  the  student  is  referred  for  detailed  information  to 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  339  from  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

46.  The  clovers  are  legumes  belonging  to  the  genus 
Trifolium.  Certain  allied  plants  are  also  known  as  clover 
but  with  a  modifying  term,  such  as  bur  clover  {Medicago 
arabica  Huds.),  sweet  clover  (Melilotus  alba  Desv.),  Japan 
clover  (Lespedeza  striata  (Thunb.)  Hook.  &  Arn.),  all 
belonging  to  the  family  Leguminosse.  The  true  clovers 
include  the  common  red  clover  {Trifolium  pratense  L.), 
which  is  usually  referred  to  merely  as  clover,  alsike  {T. 
hybridum  L.),  white  clover  {T.  repens  L.),  and  crimson 
clover  {T.  incarnatum  L.).    The  first  two  are  used  for 


42  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

meadow,  the  third  for  pastures  and  lawns,  the  fourth  as  a 
cover,  soihng  and  green  manure  crop  as  well  as  for  hay. 

The  most  important  of  the  clovers  and  one  of  our  most 
important  forage  plants  is  red  clover.  This  thrives  in  the 
humid  region  (Par.  110)  and  is  often  sown  with  timothy. 
Its  chief  use  is  for  hay  but  it  is  also  used  as  a  cover-crop 
and  for  green  manure.  In  common  with  alfalfa  and  other 
legumes,  or  even  with  rape,  there  is  danger  of  causing 
bloating  in  cattle  and  sheep  pastured  upon  clover. 

Alsike  is  better  adapted  than  is  red  clover  to  wet  soil 
and  hence  is  utilized  in  meadows  too  wet  for  the  latter 
and  is  usually  sown  with  redtop.  Alsike  is  of  some  impor- 
tance as  a  forage  plant  but  the  amount  used  in  comparison 
with  red  clover  is  insignificant.  (See  Farmers'  Bulletins 
No.  455  on  red  clover,  No.  550  on  crimson  clover,  No. 
485  on  sweet  clover.  No.  441  on  Japan  clover.) 

47.  Timothy  is  the  great  meadow-grass  of  the  north- 
eastern states  which  produces  the  standard  hay  of  the 
market.  Timothy  is  not  so  nutritious  as  some  other 
grasses,  yet  it  is  the  leading  meadow-grass  because  it 
combines  as  does  no  other  grass  the  requisite  qualities. 
It  is  palatable,  fairly  nutritious,  easily  grown,  and  the 
the  seed  is  cheap  and  of  good  quality.  The  cheapness  of 
the  seed  is  much  influenced  by  the  good  seed  habits  of 
the  plant.  It  produces  seed  abundantly  and  the  heads 
grow  to  about  the  same  height,  ripen  about  the  same  time, 
and  do  not  wastefully  shatter  the  seed. 

Timothy  is  grown  alone  or  with  clover,  and  in  either 
case  may  be  sown  with  the  addition  of  a  nurse-crop  of 
grain.  It  may  be  sown  with  wheat  in  the  fall,  the  clover 
being  added  in  the  spring,  or  with  clover  in  the  fall,  no 
nurse-crop  being  used.  The  addition  of  the  nurse-crop 
is  an  attempt  to  gain  time  while  the  timothy  and  clover 


MEADOW  PLANTS  43 

are  getting  started.  The  term  nurse-crop  is  applied  to 
any  quick-growing  crop  that  supposedly  protects  another 
crop  while  it  is  young.  Wheat  sown  in  the  fall  produces  a 
crop  the  following  summer,  and  the  timothy  and  clover 
have  a  better  start  than  if  sown  after  the  wheat  is  cut. 
However,  in  most  cases  if  the  timothy  and  clover  are  sown 
together  in  the  fall  on  well-prepared  land,  no  time  is  lost, 
for  a  full  hay  crop  will  be  produced  the  following  year. 

If  well  seeded  down  timothy  will  produce  crops  for 
several  years,  but  experience  has  shown  that  the  best 
results  are  obtained  by  making  the  meadow  a  part  of  a 
rotation.  On  good,  arable  land,  with  suitable  application 
of  fertilizer,  a  timothy  and  clover  meadow  will  yield  heavy 
crops  the  first  and  second  crop-year.  After  this  the 
amount  of  the  crop  decreases.  Hence  it  is  more  profitable 
to  plow  up  and  plant  to  another  crop  such  as  corn,  some- 
times with  an  intervening  year  devoted  to  pasture. 

48.  Redtop. — On  lands  where  timothy  is  at  its  best, 
there  is  no  competing  meadow-grass;  but,  on  soil  too 
moist  for  the  best  results  with  timothy,  which  is  often 
also  acid  soil,  redtop  is  the  most  satisfactory  meadow- 
grass.  The  region  where  redtop  is  most  extensively  grown 
is  the  Atlantic  slope  from  New  England  to  Maryland, 
although  it  is  also  grown  to  a  limited  extent  throughout 
the  timothy  region.  It  can  also  be  grown  to  advantage 
somewhat  farther  south  than  can  timothy. 

49.  Johnson-grass  is  an  excellent  meadow-grass  for 
the  states  from  Georgia  to  Texas.  It  yields  large  crops  of 
nutritious  and  palatable  hay  and  can  be  grown  easily 
and  cheaply.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  a  very  aggressive 
species,  propagating  readily  by  seed  and  by  strong  under- 
ground creeping  stems  or  rootstocks.  When  once  in  pos- 
session of  a  field  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate.  For  this  reason. 


44  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

in  spite  of  its  good  qualities,  it  is  looked  upon  as  a  per- 
nicious weed.  It  is  not  wise  to  introduce  this  species  on 
land  that  is  free  from  it.  A  meadow  should  be  a  part  of  a 
rotation,  and  Johnson-grass  does  not  readily  give  up  its 
place  to  the  following  crop.  When  a  permanent  meadow 
is  desired,  this  grass,  if  its  weedy  habit  be  not  taken  into 
consideration,  is  probably  the  best  for  the  purpose  in 
those  parts  of  the  South,  such  as  the  black  soil  of  central 
Texas,  where  it  reaches  its  highest  development.  It  is 
less  satisfactory  as  a  pasture-grass  since,  not  well  with- 
standing grazing,  the  yield  decreases  after  two  or  three 
years.  If  a  farm  is  already  infested  with  Johnson-grass 
it  is  well  to  take  advantage  of  its  useful  qualities  as  a 
meadow-grass.  As  this  species  tends  to  become  sod-bound 
in  a  few  years  owing  to  the  rapid  multiplication  of  root- 
stocks,  the  field  should  be  plowed  every  two  or  three  years. 
50.  Eradication  of  Johnson-grass. — Johnson-grass  can 
be  eradicated,  but  the  process  requires  more  care  than  in 
the  case  of  most  weeds.  Plowing  in  the  fall  with  a  turn- 
ing plow,  harrowing  out  and  removing  the  rootstocks, 
sowing  the  field  to  early- maturing  grain,  oats  or  rye, 
cut  for  hay  in  the  spring,  and  following  with  a  cultivated 
crop,  will  keep  the  grass  in  subjection.  In  the  region  where 
Johnson-grass  reaches  its  greatest  development,  alfalfa 
also  thrives.  Hence  an  excellent  method  to  utilize  an 
infested  field  is  to  sow  alfalfa.  This  is  done  in  the  fall 
after  the  field  has  been  plowed  and  harrowed  to  remove 
the  rootstocks.  The  alfalfa  soon  smothers  out  most  of 
the  Johnson-grass,  and  the  hay  is  not  injured  by  the  pres- 
ence of  such  of  the  latter  as  may  remain.  Johnson-grass 
shares  with  sorghum  the  tendency  to  poison  stock  through 
the  production,  under  certain  conditions,  of  hydrocyanic 
acid.    (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  279.) 


MEADOW  PLANTS  45 

51.  Other  meadow-grasses. — Various  grasses  other 
than  the  three  mentioned  are  recommended  for  meadow 
mixtures  but  none  is  used  to  any  considerable  extent. 
Orchard-grass  is  a  desirable  grass,  yielding  a  good  crop  of 
nutritious  hay.  The  chief  objection  to  it  is  that  it  grows 
in  heavy  tussocks  that  make  an  uneven  bed  for  a  mowing 
machine.  Furthermore  the  seed  is  rather  expensive.  The 
cost  of  the  seed  also  militates  against  meadow  fescue, 
another  good  meadow-grass.  The  prestige  of  timothy  is 
probably  one  of  the  reasons  why  some  of  the  less  known 
grasses  are  not  used  to  a  greater  extent.  Tall  meadow 
oat-grass  and  the  two  rye-grasses,  English  and  Italian, 
are  often  recommended  for  mixtures.  Velvet-grass  is  of 
little  value  except  on  sandy  land  where  better  grasses 
will  not  thrive.  Other  grasses  mentioned  in  seed  catalogues 
and  occasionally  used  in  mixtures  are  rough-stalked 
meadow-grass,  fowl  meadow-grass,  crested  dog's-tail, 
sweet  vernal-grass,  and  meadow  foxtail. 

It  should  be  added  that  the  two  important  pasture- 
grasses,  blue-grass  and  Bermuda,  are  sometimes  used  for 
hay  in  the  regions  where  they  reach  their  maximum 
development.  Guinea-grass  is  occasionally  used  for  hay 
in  the  tropics,  for  which  purpose,  because  of  its  numerous 
leafy  basal  shoots,  it  is  well  adapted;  but  farm  practice 
in  the  warm  regions  usually  calls  for  a  soiling  crop  rather 
than  a  hay  crop. 

52.  Slender  wheat-grass. — The  only  native  meadow- 
grass  whose  seed  has  become  a  commercial  product  is 
slender  wheat-grass  (Agropyron  tenerum).  It  is  a  native 
bunch-grass  of  the  western  states  and  is  adapted  to  the 
semi-arid  region  of  the  Northwest,  where  it  should  form  a 
permanent  meadow  or  pasture.  It  has  not  been  sufficiently 
tested  as  yet  to  determine  its  comparative  value. 


46  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Temporary  meadows 

53.  Under  temporary  meadows  are  included  annual 
crops  sown  or  planted  for  hay,  although  fields  of  such 
crops  are  not  often  popularly  designated  as  meadows. 
The  plants  most  used  for  this  purpose  are:  the  grains, 
foxtail  millet,  sorghum,  corn  and  certain  legumes,  such  as 
cowpea  and  field  pea.  Several  other  plants  are  used 
locally  or  sporadically. 

54.  Grain  hay. — Probably  the  most  important  group 
of  annual  plants  used  for  the  production  of  annual 
meadows  is  that  of  the  grains.  From  the  commercial 
standpoint  grain  hay  is  of  importance  only  in  the  western 
states  and  particularly  on  the  Pacific  coast.  In  this  por- 
tion of  the  United  States,  except  in  the  mountain  meadows, 
there  is  little  native  vegetation  suitable  for  hay.  Under 
irrigation,  alfalfa  is  the  standard  forage  crop;  but,  over  a 
large  area  where  the  rainfall,  though  small,  comes  chiefly 
during  the  winter,  it  is  possible  to  grow  crops  of  grain 
without  irrigation.  The  grains  used  for  hay  in  the  Pacific 
coast  states  are  mostly  wheat  and  oats.  In  some  locali- 
ties barley,  especially  beardless  barley,  is  used.  Another 
important  constituent  of  the  grain  hay  is  wild  oats  {Avena 
fatua,  A.fatua  glabrata,  and  A.  harhata).  This  is  widely 
distributed,  and  an  abundant  volunteer  crop  may  appear 
in  a  field  after  a  grain  crop  is  harvested.  In  Washington 
and  Oregon  chess  or  cheat  is  sometimes  cultivated 
for  hay. 

55.  The  relative  importance  of  grain  hay  may  be 
estimated  from  the  data  for  California  taken  from  the 
report  of  the  thirteenth  census  and  given  in  the  following 
table.  Important  as  is  the  alfalfa  crop,  its  value  is  exceeded 
by  that  of  grain  hay. 


MEADOW  PLANTS 


47 


TABLE  XVI 

Acreage,   Production  and   Value    of  Grain    Hay  in   California 

Compared  with  the  Total  Hay  and  Forage  and  with  Alfalfa 


Crop 

Acres 

Amount  (tons) 

Value 

Hay  and  forage     .... 

Alfalfa' 

Grain  hay 

2,533,347 

484,134 

1,604,745 

4,327,130 
1,639,707 
2,019,526 

$42,187,215 
13,088,530 
24,056,727 

In  the  eastern  states,  grain  hay,  especially  oats,  is 
used  on  the  farm  in  the  sheaf,  but  nowhere  does  it  reach 
any  considerable  commercial  importance.  Straw,  as  a 
by-product  of  grain-growing,  is  of  some  importance.  Its 
use  as  forage  is  of  secondary  rank  and  is  mostly  confined 
to  the  farm,  the  mature  straw  having  little  nutritive  value. 
When  it  enters  commercial  channels  it  is  mostly  for 
bedding  and  packing,  though  specially  prepared  straw 
may  have  other  uses  such  as  the  making  of  hats. 

MILLETS 


56.  By  millet  is  meant  foxtail  millet  as  distinguished 
from  several  other  grasses  called  millet,  but  with  a  modify- 
ing term,  such  as  proso  millet  (Par.  217),  pearl  millet  (Par. 
221),  Japanese  barnyard  millet  (Par.  218)  and  African 
millet  (Par.  210).  Millet  as  grown  in  the  United  States  is 
found  in  two  forms,  common  millet  and  Hungarian-grass 
(Par.  220).  A  form  of  common  millet  was  much  adver- 
tised a  few  years  ago  as  Golden  Wonder  millet.  The 
variety  known  as  German  millet  is  also  a  form  of  the 
common  millet,  differing  chiefly  in  its  longer  season  of 
growth.  Millet  is  grown  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States,  especially  in  the  region  from  Oklahoma  to  Iowa. 
It  produces  an  abundance  of  nutritive  and  palatable  hay 


48  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

relished  by  all  kinds  of  stock  and  in  general  is  a  valuable 
forage  plant.  Horses  sometimes  appear  to  suffer  injury 
if  fed  millet  exclusively  but  cattle  and  sheep  are  free  from 
this  danger.  If  cut  too  late  the  bristles  of  the  seed-heads 
may  become  troublesome.  It  can  be  sown  after  a  grain 
crop  or  in  place  of  other  crops  when  there  has  been  a  failure 
to  secure  a  stand.  The  tenderness  of  the  growing  plants 
render  early  sowing  impracticable.  (See  Farmers'  Bulletin 
No.  101.) 

57.  Sorghum  is  grown  m  many  parts  of  the  world  and, 
according  to  the  variety,  for  many  different  purposes. 
The  seed  is  used  for  food  for  man  in  parts  of  the  Old 
World,  and  in  the  United  States  that  of  certain  forms,  such 
as  kafir,  is  used  for  stock  feed.  One  variety  is  called  broom- 
corn  (Par.  211).  The  saccharine  sorghums  or  sorgo  con- 
tain much  sugar  in  the  sap  and  are  used  for  the  commer- 
cial production  of  sugar  (Par.  97).  The  saccharine  varie- 
ties such  as  the  Orange  and  Amber,  and  also  some  of  the 
non-saccharine  such  as  kafir  and  milo,  are  grown  for 
forage.  Those  which  are  grown  for  the  seed  may  furnish 
forage  also,  the  stalks  being  cut  and  shocked  as  in  corn, 
the  grain  being  thrashed  out  or  the  heads  cut  off  and  the 
remainder  used  as  rough  forage.  In  the  semi-arid  region 
where  drought-resistant  hay  crops  are  needed,  sorghum 
is  much  used  as  a  hay  crop.  For  this  purpose  it  is  sown  or 
drilled  thickly,  so  as  to  produce  numerous  slender  stems, 
and  the  crop  mowed  and  cured  as  hay.  In  some  parts  of 
the  Middle  West,  sorghum  is  known  as  "cane."  (See 
Farmers'  Bulletins  Nos.  246,  288,  322,  448,  552.) 

58.  Com  or  maize  is  sometimes  sown  thickly  and  used 
for  hay  as  is  described  above  for  sorghum.  The  most 
common  use  of  corn  as  forage  is  in  connection  with  its 
use  as  a  grain  crop.    The  corn  may  then  be  treated  in 


MEADOW  PLANTS  49 

two  general  ways.  It  may  be  allowed  to  mature  in  the 
field,  the  graui  being  taken  away,  allowing  the  standing 
stalks  to  remain.  This  is  known  as  husking  the  corn  from 
the  row  or  from  the  field.  The  stalks  are  then  pastured 
during  the  winter,  the  animals  feeding  upon  the  dead 
leaves  and  upon  any  ears  that  may  have  been  overlooked 
by  the  husker.  Mature  cornstalks,  however,  have  little 
nutritive  value.  The  other  way  is  to  cut  the  cornstalks 
and  shock  them  in  the  field,  before  the  ears  are  mature 
and  while  the  leaves  are  yet  green.  The  shocks  remain 
until  the  forage  is  cured  and  the  ears  have  matured.  The 
ears  may  be  husked  in  the  field  and  the  forage  stored  in 
stacks  or  sheds  or  the  shocks  may  be  hauled  to  the  barns 
where  the  husking  is  done  either  by  hand  or  by  machinery. 
The  forage  or  corn-fodder  produced  in  this  way  is  much 
more  nutritious  than  that  which  is  matured  before  husk- 
ing, and  the  grain  suffers  little  loss  by  the  process.  Corn 
and  kafir  are  sometimes  cut  and  bound  in  bundles  by 
machinery,  a  process  which  lessens  the  labor  of  shocking. 

59.  Other  grasses  producing  hay  or  coarse  fodder. — 
Several  other  grasses  are  used  locally  for  the  production 
of  coarse  hay.  Some  of  these  have  undoubted  merit  but 
usually  must  compete  with  the  more  important  species 
mentioned  previously.  Others  are  native  or  weedy  species 
that  are  utilized  locally.  A  more  complete  account  of 
some  of  these  grasses  is  given  in  Part  II. 

60.  Japanese  barnyard  millet. — Several  varieties  are 
grown  in  Asia  and  have  been  tried  in  America,  but  with 
little  success.  One  variety  has  been  advertised  under  the 
name  of  billion-dollar  grass.  They  require  plenty  of  water 
to  produce  crops,  and  in  the  humid  regions  will  not  com- 
pete with  other  grasses.  They  have  some  value  under 
irrigation  in  the  Southwest. 

D 


50  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

61.  Proso  millet. — This  is  the  common  millet  of 
Europe,  where  it  is  grown  extensively  for  forage  and  for 
the  seed,  the  latter  being  used  for  food  for  animals  and 
also  among  the  poorer  classes  for  man.  In  this  country- 
it  has  been  tried  repeatedly,  but  the  results  have  not 
been  very  satisfactory.  It  does  not  compete  with  other 
plants  for  forage,  but  produces  under  favorable  condi- 
tions an  abundance  of  seed.  This  may  prove  valuable  for 
poultry.  The  seed  can  be  used  also  for  stock,  but  shatters 
rather  readily.  Proso  millet  is  also  called  broom-corn 
millet  because  of  the  resemblance  of  the  inflorescence  to 
that  of  broom-corn.   Another  name  is  hog  millet. 

62.  Pearl  millet  and  teosinte  are  sometimes  used  for 
hay,  but  usually  for  soiling  (Par.  75). 

Texas  millet  is  a  native  weedy  species  found  in  the 
valley  of  the  Colorado  River  and  neighboring  valleys  in 
southeast  Texas.  The  volunteer  crop  on  rich  land  is  cut 
for  hay,  this  being  of  good  quality.  Texas  millet  is  also 
known  as  Colorado-grass. 

Crab-grass  may  be  mentioned  here,  as  it  is  frequently 
cut  for  hay  in  the  South,  where  it  appears  in  fields  as  a 
weed.  The  hay  is  of  good  quality,  but  is  mostly  used  on 
the  farm  and  does  not  often  appear  on  the  market. 

Chess  or  cheat  (Bromus  secalinus)  is  grown  for  hay 
locally  in  Oregon,  especially  in  the  Willamette  Valley. 
This  in  other  regions  is  a  weed  in  grain  fields  but  there 
has  been  utilized  successfully. 

63.  Several  annual  legumes  are  used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  hay  or  coarse  forage.  They  are  usually  used  as  a 
cover-crop  or  as  green  manure  in  connection  with  other 
farm  processes.  They  are  used  extensively,  especially  in 
the  South,  as  a  part  of  a  rotation  in  order  to  maintain 
the  fertility  of  the  soil.    As  stated  previously  (Par.  15), 


MEADOW  PLANTS  51 

the  legumes  have  the  power  to  add  nitrogen  to  the  soil 
by  means  of  the  root  nodules  and  the  nitrogen-fixing 
organisms  contained  therein.  The  choice  of  the  legume 
for  this  purpose  depends  largely  upon  the  secondary  uses 
that  can  be  made  of  the  crop.  It  may  be  made  into  hay 
or  may  be  cut  green  and  used  for  soiling  or  for  silage 
(Par.  76).  In  the  timothy  region,  clover  is  a  staple  crop 
(Par.  46).  In  the  South,  where  no  perennial  legume  is 
adapted  to  the  conditions  prevailing  over  most  of  the 
region,  annual  legumes  are  used.  It  is  true  that  alfalfa 
is  grown  with  success  in  many  parts  of  the  South,  such  as 
the  alluvial  valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  Red  Rivers,  and 
the  black  soil  of  central  Alabama,  but  even  here  an  annual 
crop  may  be  desired  for  the  other  purposes  mentioned 
above.  The  commonest  of  the  annual  legumes  in  the 
South  are  the  cowpea  and  velvet  bean.  In  the  North, 
the  field  pea  is  much  used,  and  in  middle  regions  vetch 
and  crimson  clover. 

64.  The  cowpea  {Vigna  sinensis  (Torner)  Savi.)  is  a 
trailing  vine  with  trifoliate  leaves  and  slender,  bean-like 
pods.  Some  varieties  are  bushy  and  trail  only  slightly. 
The  cowpea  is  the  standard  legume  for  the  South.  Its  use 
has  extended  gradually  northward  until  some  varieties 
are  now  grown  as  far  as  Michigan.  It  is  a  warm-weather 
species  and  cannot  be  sown  until  the  season  is  well 
advanced.  In  the  South  this  limitation  presents  little 
difficulty,  but  in  the  North  only  quick-growing  and  more 
hardy  varieties  can  be  used.  The  hay  from  cowpea  is 
excellent  in  quality,  but,  like  all  succulent  forage,  requires 
special  care  in  harvesting  and  curing.  It  should  be 
remembered  that  the  feeding  value  of  a  legume  like  the 
cowpea  is  much  greater  than  its  fertilizing  value.  Hence 
the  dual  use  of  the  crop,  the  greater  part  of  the  vines 


52  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

and  leaves  being  used  for  hay  or  green  feed,  the  remainder 
being  turned  under  for  green  manure.  When  grown  on 
sterile  soil  it  may  be  necessary  to  turn  under  a  larger 
proportion  in  order  to  produce  humus.  (See  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  318.) 

65.  Velvet  bean  (Stizolobium  Deeringianum  Bort). — • 
This  coarse  rank-growing  vine  is  similar  to  the  cowpea  but 
gives  a  much  greater  growth.  The  velvet  bean  is  not  so 
hardy  as  the  cowpea  and  is  used  only  in  the  South.  It 
has  given  excellent  results  in  Florida.  (See  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  509,  and  Bur.  PL  Ind.  Bulletin  No.  179). 

66.  The  vetches  are  upright  or  reclining  plants  with 
tendrils  at  the  ends  of  the  compound  leaves.  In  a  general 
way  they  resemble  the  garden  pea,  but  the  leaflets  and 
flowers  are  smaller.  There  are  two  common  kinds  of 
vetch  in  use  in  the  United  States — spring  vetch  (Vicia 
sativa  L.)  and  hairy  vetch  (V.  villosa  Roth).  The  one 
most  grown  is  the  latter,  since  it  better  withstands 
drought.  The  vetches  are  usually  sown  with  grain,  the 
latter  supporting  the  vetch,  thus  producing  a  combina- 
tion that  can  be  harvested  with  greater  ease  than  can  the 
vetch  alone.  Vetch  may  be  used  as  a  winter  crop  in  the 
South  or  as  a  summer  crop  in  the  North.  (See  Farmers' 
Bulletins  Nos.  515,  529.) 

67.  Crimson  clover  (Trifolium  incarnatum  L.). — This 
is  a  tall  •clover  with  long  heads  of  crimson  flowers.    It  is 

rather  extensively  used  in  the  region  from  New  Jersey  to 
North  Carolina.  It  should  be  cut  when  in  flower.  If  cut 
later  the  fuzzy  hairs  around  the  head  prove  troublesome, 
especially  to  horses.    (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  579.) 

Field  pea  (Pisum  arvense  L.).  The  field  pea,  resembling 
the  garden  pea  in  habit,  is  much  used  in  Canada  and  our 
more  northern    states.     The  field  pea  requires  a  cool. 


MEADOW  PLANTS  53 

moist  climate,  hence  is  not  adapted  to  the  regions  farther 
south.  It  is  usually  sown  with  grain  for  the  reasons  men- 
tioned under  vetches.    (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  224.) 

The  soybean  (Soja  Soja  (L.)  Karst.,  Glycine  hispida 
Maxim.)  is  an  upright  plant  that  tends  to  become  bushy. 
In  southeastern  Asia,  where  the  species  is  native,  it  is 
extensively  cultivated,  the  seed  being  used  for  human 
food.  In  the  United  States  the  soybean  is  grown  for  both 
seed  and  forage.  The  seed,  rich  in  protein,  is  used  for 
feeding  stock,  usually  in  the  form  of  soybean  meal.  As  a 
forage  plant,  it  can  be  utilized  for  hay  or  for  pasture. 
The  soybean  is  adapted  to  the  cotton-belt  and  north- 
ward into  the  southern  part  of  the  corn-belt.  Being 
much  more  drought-resistant  than  the  cowpea  it  can  be 
grown  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Great  Plains.  (See 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  372.) 

Sweet  clover  (Melilotus  alba)  is  a  vigorous  grower  and 
makes  excellent  hay,  the  chief  objection  being  that  stock 
do  not  readily  eat  it  until  they  have  acquired  a  taste  for 
it.  The  plant  is  a  biennial,  producing  the  flowers  the 
second  season.  The  hay  should  be  cut  before  seed  is 
formed.  Sweet  clover  is  also  known  as  Bokhara  clover. 
(See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  485.) 

Florida  beggar -weed  (Meibomia  tortuosa  (Swartz) 
Kuntze).  This  has  been  used  with  success  in  Florida  and 
the  Gulf  states.  It  is  a  tall  plant  with  trifoliate  leaves  and 
flat,  constricted  pods  that  break  up  into  one-seeded  joints 
that  adhere  to  wool  or  clothing  by  means  of  a  covering  of 
hook-like  hairs.    (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  509.) 


CHAPTER  VI 

HAY  AND  GREEN  FEED 

The  product  of  meadows  may  be  fed  immediately  or 
it  may  be  preserved.  If  it  is  fed  immediately,  the  process 
is  known  as  soiling,  and  crops  grown  for  this  purpose  are 
called  soiling  crops.  To  preserve  forage  it  must  be  pro- 
tected from  decomposition  or  rotting.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  removing  a  sufficient  proportion  of  water 
by  drying,  in  which  case  the  product  is  called  hay.  Or  the 
forage  may  be  preserved  green,  the  destructive  decom- 
position being  prevented  by  the  exclusion  of  the  air.  The 
preserved  product  is  then  called  silage. 


68.  In  the  wide  sense,  hay  is  dried  vegetation  used  as 
food  for  animals.  In  this  sense  ripened  buffalo-grass  and 
standing  cornstalks,  grazed  during  winter,  are  hay.  In 
the  restricted  sense,  the  word  hay  is  applied  to  the  cut 
and  dried  or  cured  product  of  meadows,  more  particularly 
the  product  of  the  smaller  grasses  and  clovers.  The  coarse 
hay  of  cornstalks  and  other  large  grasses  is  more  often 
called  fodder.  Ordinarily  meadow  hay  is  made  by  cutting 
with  a  mower  and  allowing  the  cut  material  to  lie  in  the 
sun  until  partly  dried,  after  which  it  is  raked  into  wind- 
rows, then  placed  in  bunches  or  cocks  and  finally  in 
stacks  or  under  a  roof.  The  process  is  varied  to  suit  con- 
ditions. The  object  is  to  remove  sufficient  moisture  to 
(54) 


HAY  AND  GREEN  FEED  55 

prevent  molding  when  stored.  In  dry,  sunny  weather 
little  difficulty  is  experienced  in  producing  good  hay;  but, 
in  humid  climates,  hay-making  is  a  process  requiring  much 
care.  Rain  and  dew  delay  the  drying  and  reduce  the 
quality  of  the  hay,  or  they  may  render  the  product  entirely 
worthless.  It  is  readily  seen  that  weather  conditions 
become  an  important  factor  in  hay-making.  Putting  hay 
in  cocks  and  covering  with  some  kind  of  impervious  shield 
is  an  attempt  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  water. 

69.  In  arid  regions  the  hay  may  be  cut  and  stacked 
the  same  day,  but  in  humid  regions  the  curing  may  extend 
over  several  days  with  the  corresponding  risk  from  rain. 
Succulent  plants,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa  and  cowpea, 
demand  especial  care  because  the  stems  require  a  longer 
time  than  the  leaves  for  curing.  The  foliage  drops  off 
readily  and  is  lost  when  there  is  much  delay  in  curing. 
As  the  leaves  are  the  most  important  part,  this  loss 
becomes  serious.  The  vines  of  cowpea  and  velvet  bean 
are  so  succulent  that  special  methods  of  curing  are  fre- 
quently adopted.  It  is  a  common  practice  in  the  South 
to  cure  the  vines  on  upright  racks  or  poles  so  as  to 
allow  a  circulation  of  air.  A  single  pole  with  the  vines 
arranged  around  it,  makes  a  tall,  slender  bunch  or  cock 
that  gives  much  lateral  surface  in  proportion  to  the  area 
of  the  top. 

70.  Stacks. — Hay  that  is  stacked  in  the  open  deterio- 
rates on  the  exposed  portion  and  there  is  a  considerable 
percentage  of  loss  from  the  weathering  of  the  outer  por- 
tion of  the  stack.  Careful  building  of  the  stack  and  a 
covering  of  reeds  or  canvas  reduces  the  loss.  Hay  stored 
in  barns  suffers  practically  no  loss,  and  in  sheds  only  in 
proportion  to  the  exposed  surface.  On  the  large  ranches 
of  the  West  it  is  impracticable  to  store  in  barns  the  large 


56  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

quantity  of  hay  produced,  and  the  chmatic  conditions 
render  this  unnecessary. 

71.  Hay  in  the  West. — When  hay  is  made  on  a  large 
scale  such  as  prevails  on  many  western  ranches,  the  pro- 
cess involves  the  use  of  several  appliances  not  often  seen 
on  the  smaller  farms  of  the  East.  The  mower  and  horse- 
rake  are  common  everywhere.  To  transport  the  bunches 
of  grass  hay  to  the  stack  a  sweep  or  bull  rake  is  often 
used.  This  is  an  implement  with  large  teeth,  that  slides 
along  the  ground  and  under  the  bunches.  For  alfalfa  it  is 
better  to  load  on  wagons  as  the  sweep  tends  to  shatter 
the  foliage.  The  sweep  can  not  be  used  for  long  distances. 
At  the  stack  the  hay  is  transferred  from  the  wagons  or 
from  the  sweeps  by  large  forks  worked  by  horse-power. 
These  forks  are  operated  in  connection  with  some  form  of 
pole  derrick,  or  less  frequently  with  a  cable  derrick.  Nets 
or  slings  are  often  used  to  unload  wagons.  These  are 
placed  at  intervals  in  the  load,  which  can  then  be  hoisted 
off  in  three  or  four  parts  with  a  derrick. 

72.  The  standard  hay  on  city  markets  in  the  East  is 
timothy  and  all  other  kinds  are  estimated  in  comparison 
with  timothy.  The  demand  here  is  for  hay  suitable  for 
horses,  and  custom  has  come  to  consider  timothy  as  best 
satisfying  this  demand.  Clover  mixed  with  timothy  may 
increase  the  feeding  value  but  may  also  reduce  the  mar- 
ket value  in  these  markets.  The  demand  for  timothy  in 
preference  to  other  hay  is  largely  due  to  the  wishes  of  the 
livery  stabled,  timothy  being  considered  by  horsemen  to 
be  the  best  hay  for  livery  horses. 

In  localities  in  which  prairie  hay  enters  the  market, 
it  is  demanded  in  preference  to  alfalfa  for  livery  horses. 

73.  Baled  hay. — In  recent  years  the  baling  of  hay  has 
become  an  important  industry  and  baled  hay  has  almost 


HAY  AND   GREEN   FEED  57 

replaced  bulk  hay  upon  the  market.  Of  course  all  hay- 
that  enters  commercial  channels  is  baled,  bulk  hay  being 
confined  to  the  local  market.  Even  for  use  upon  the  farm 
or  ranch  the  hay  may  be  baled  for  convenience  in  hauling 
and  storing.  As  baled  hay  occupies  only  140  to  160  cubic 
feet  to  the  ton  there  is  a  great  saving  of  space  over  hay 
sold  in  bulk.  The  standard  bale  weighs  70  to  250  pounds; 
the  small  bale,  much  used  in  the  South,  70  to  100  pounds; 
the  medium  bale,  100  to  150  pounds,  and  the  large  bale, 
requiring  two  men  to  handle,  150  to  250  pounds. 

Any  kind  of  hay,  straw,  or  fodder  may  be  baled,  but 
the  baled  hay  in  commerce  in  the  United  States  consists 
mostly  of  timothy,  prairie  hay,  alfalfa,  and  grain  hay,  the 
latter  largely  confined  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  classes  of 
hay  recognized  in  the  East  by  the  National  Hay  Associa- 
tion are  timothy,  clover-mixed  (timothy  and  clover), 
clover,  and  prairie,  with  two  to  five  grades  each.  For 
transportation  to  trans-oceanic  points,  especially  Alaska 
and  the  Philippines,  the  hay  may  be  double  compressed. 
For  this  purpose  hay  obtained  by  loosening  ordinary 
bales  is  compressed  by  powerful  hydraulic  or  electric 
presses  similar  to  those  used  for  compressing  the  cylindri- 
cal bales  of  cotton.  The  resulting  bale  is  very  compact, 
the  square  form  occupying  85  cubic  feet  to  the  ton,  and 
the  cylindrical  bales  only  55  cubic  feet.  (See  Farmers' 
Bulletin  No.  508.) 

SOILING  AND    SILAGE  CROPS 

74.  SoiUng  is  the  system  of  feeding  to  animals  in  in- 
closures  green  forage  recently  cut  from  the  growing  plants. 

Silage  is  the  system  of  preserving  fresh  green  forage  in 
suitable  more  or  less  air-tight  receptacles. 


58  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Both  these  systems  are  attempts  to  furnish  green  feed 
without  turning  the  animals  out  to  pasture.  These  systems 
are  most  used  and  have  reached  their  highest  develop- 
ment in  connection  with  dairying.  The  advantages  are  that 
the  quantity  and  kind  of  material  fed  can  be  controlled, 
that  there  is  less  waste  than  in  pasturing,  that  crops  can 
be  utilized  which  would  be  impracticable  for  pasture,  and 
that  stock  are  saved  the  work  of  traveling  about  in  search 
of  food.  Silage  still  further  has  the  advantage  of  continu- 
ing the  supply  of  green  feed  through  the  winter. 

75.  Soiling. — The  practice  of  soiling  is  well  adapted 
to  intensive  farming.  When  the  price  of  land  is  high  it  is 
usually  more  economical  to  raise  large  crops  of  forage  on 
well-fertilized  fields  and  feed  green  than  to  have  pasture, 
since  the  latter  can  not  produce  so  great  a  quantity  of 
feed.  On  the  other  hand  the  labor  required  for  soiling  is 
much  greater.  The  cost  of  labor  compared  with  the  price 
of  the  products  as  milk  or  beef,  determines  the  system  to 
use.  By  proper  care  in  selecting  crops,  a  continuous  yield 
of  green  forage  may  be  obtained  through  a  large  portion 
of  the  growing  season. 

Many  crops  are  used  for  soiling,  but  in  the  main  they 
are  annuals  and  often  succulent  plants.  They  include  the 
grains,  the  succulent  grasses,  such  as  corn,  or  sorghum, 
and  the  annual  legumes  mentioned  before  (Par.  63).  Peren- 
nial grasses  and  clovers  may  also  be  used,  but  the  advan- 
tage is  less,  as  they  do  not  give  so  large  a  yield  as  do 
annuals.  Teosinte  and  pearl  millet  are  used  locally  with 
success,  the  former  giving,  on  the  rich  moist  valley  lands 
of  Louisiana,  enormous  yields  of  forage. 

76.  Silage. — In  this  process  the  green  forage  is  placed 
in  an  air-tight  receptacle  called  a  silo.  This  may  consist 
of  a  pit  or  room  in  a  barn,  or  more  commonly  a  separate, 


HAY  AND  GREEN  FEED  59 

usually  cylindrical  structure  or  building.  In  this  is  placed 
the  forage  usually  as  it  comes  from  a  cutting  machine. 
The  material  is  packed  tight  by  tramping  in  order  to 
exclude  as  much  air  as  possible.  If  necessary,  water  is 
added  to  facilitate  the  packing.  If  properly  prepared  the 
silage  or  ensilage  will  keep  for  many  months.  The  material 
is  canned  on  a  gigantic  scale  though  it  has  not  been  steril- 
ized. More  or  less  fermentation  takes  place  but  not  of  a 
character  to  interfere  with  its  feeding  value,  nor  with  its 
palatability  for  stock  that  has  become  accustomed  to  the 
the  characteristic  taste  of  silage.  If  the  packing  of  the 
silo  has  been  done  carelessly  the  material  rots  and  is 
worthless. 

The  silo  is  built  tall  and  narrow  in  order  to  give  greater 
pressure,  thus  packing  the  silage  more  closely.  Further- 
more, the  smaller  surface  exposed  at  the  top  gives  less 
opportunity  for  spoiling.  The  top  layer  exposed  to  the 
air  rots  and  must  be  discarded,  unless  the  feeding  is  com- 
menced as  soon  as  the  silo  is  filled.  The  top  layer  may  be 
of  chaff  or  other  material  of  little  value.  If  there  is  a  leak 
in  the  silo  the  silage  will  spoil  at  this  point.  The  silo  may 
be  made  of  cement,  brick  or  any  other  building  material, 
but  because  of  the  lower  cost  is  usually  made  of  wood.  It 
should  be  at  least  24  feet  high  to  give  the  necessary  pres- 
sure and  bulk. 

The  silage  should  be  fed  rapidly  enough  to  prevent  the 
exposed  upper  layer  from  having  time  to  spoil.  For  this 
reason  it  is  not  expedient  to  feed  less  than  ten  cows.  It  is 
essential  to  pack  the  silage  tightly  as  it  is  placed  in  the 
silo.  This  forces  out  most  of  the  air.  The  fermentation 
uses  up  the  small  amount  of  air  remaining  and  if  there  are 
no  leaks  the  fermentation  ceases. 

Any  kind  of  forage  may  be  preserved  in  a  silo,  but  the 


60  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

plant  most  used  for  the  purpose  is  corn.  For  silage,  the 
corn  should  be  planted  more  thickly  than  when  grown  for 
grain.  The  crop  should  be  made  to  yield  the  maximum 
amount  of  grain,  rather  than  the  largest  ears.  The  corn 
should  be  cut  when  the  grain  is  glazed,  as  at  this  stage 
there  is  the  maximum  amount  of  dry  matter.  In  the 
North,  varieties  should  be  chosen  that  will  reach  the 
glazed  stage  before  frost.   (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  556.) 


CHAPTER   VII 

LAWNS 

A  LAWN  is  an  open  area  covered  with  grass  and  kept 
closely  mown.  The  term  is  applied  especially  to  tracts 
near  dwellings,  but  may  be  applied  to  closely  mown  areas 
near  other  buildings  or  in  parks.  Other  plants  than 
grasses  are  occasionally  used,  wholly  or  in  part,  such  as 
white  clover.  The  lawn  is  primarily  for  ornament,  com- 
plete in  itself  or  part  of  a  general  place  in  landscape 
gardening. 

77.  Essentials  for  a  lawn. — An  ideal  lawn  consists  of 
a  firm  even  sod  supporting  a  vigorous  growth  of  vegetation 
of  uniform  texture  and  pleasing  color,  the  whole  kept 
closely  mown.  With  rare  exceptions  the  conditions  can 
be  supplied  only  by  grasses.  A  grass  to  be  suitable  for 
lawns  should  propagate  by  rootstocks  or  stolons,  should 
be  fine  and  soft  in  texture,  and  should  be  dark  green  in 
color.  The  most  popular  lawn-grass  is  Kentucky  blue- 
grass.  The  only  other  grasses  that  fulfil  the  requirements 
mentioned  are  Rhode  Island  bent  and  creeping  bent,  both 
varieties  of  redtop.  Another  important  lawn-grass  is 
Bermuda-grass.  Several  other  grasses  are  used  for  special 
conditions  (Par.  81). 

78.  Blue-grass  is  an  ideal  lawn-grass  throughout  the 
region  to  which  it  is  adapted.  It  thrives  best  in  a  moist 
moderately  cool  climate  and  on  limestone  soils.  Blue- 
grass  forms  a  firm  even  sod  which,  under  proper  conditions 
and  treatment,  is  permanent.    The  texture  is  fine  and 

(61) 


62  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

soft  and  the  dark  green  color  is  agreeable  to  the  eye.  It 
can  be  grown  successfully  without  irrigation  in  the  north- 
eastern states  as  far  south  as  Virginia  and  Tennessee,  and 
farther  in  the  mountains,  and  west  to  Minnesota  and 
eastern  Kansas,  also  in  the  humid  region  of  Oregon  and 
Washington,  and  in  the  western  mountains.  Throughout 
most  of  the  northern  half  of  the  United  States  beyond  the 
limits  mentioned  it  can  be  grown  with  the  aid  of  irrigation. 
Even  in  the  humid  region  it  may  be  necessary  to  supply 
water  during  the  dry  periods  in  the  summer. 

In  the  southern  half  of  the  United  States,  except  in 
the  mountains,  blue-grass  does  not  thrive  even  when 
irrigated,  although,  except  in  the  lower  coastal  plain,  it 
may  with  special  care  make  a  fair  growth.  In  the  humid 
region  it  may  fail  because  of  the  character  of  the  soil. 
Thriving  best  on  limestone  soils,  it  fails  to  give  good 
results  on  acid  soils.  Hence,  blue-grass  is  not  adapted  to 
much  of  the  coastal  region  from  New  England  to  Virginia. 
Often  it  is  practicable  to  correct  the  soil  acidity  by  the 
addition  of  lime. 

79.  Rhode  Island  bent  is  especially  adapted  to  that 
portion  of  the  humid  region  in  which  blue-grass  fails 
because  of  soil  acidity,  as  it  thrives  under  moist,  moder- 
ately acid  conditions.  Rhode  Island  bent  does  not  pro- 
duce vigorous  creeping  rootstocks  as  does  blue-grass,  but 
nevertheless  will  form  a  fairly  firm  and  uniform  sod. 
For  a  description  of  Rhode  Island  bent  and  its  relation 
to  redtop,  see  Par.  234.  Creeping  bent  is  another  form  of 
redtop,  with  creeping  or  stoloniferous  stems,  which  pro- 
duces a  lawn  of  good  color  and  texture. 

80.  Bermuda-grass  answers  all  the  requirements  of 
an  ideal  lawn  grass  except  that  of  color.  To  many  people 
the  light  gray-green  color  is  not  so  pleasing  to  the  eye  as 


LAWNS  63 

the  dark  green  of  the  blue-grass.  In  the  southern  portion 
of  the  United  States  where  the  cUmate  is  too  hot  in  sum- 
mer for  blue-grass,  Bermuda-grass  is  the  common  lawn- 
grass,  except  in  certain  localities  along  the  coast.  It  is  the 
only  lawn-grass  that  will  withstand  the  summer  condi- 
tions on  the  uplands  of  the  South.  The  foliage  is  not 
resistant  to  frost,  hence  lawns  turn  brown  or  yellow  in 
winter,  but  the  plants  are  not  killed  except  by  greater 
cold  than  usually  prevails  south  of  Virginia.  St.  Lucie- 
grass  is  a  variety  of  Bermuda  especially  adapted  to  lawns, 
as  it  is  fine  in  texture.   This  form  is  much  used  in  Florida. 

81.  Less  important  lawn -grasses. — St.  Augustine- 
grass  is  a  coarse-leaved  species  used  on  moist,  mucky  soil 
of  the  lower  coastal  region.  It  is  in  use  as  far  north  as 
Wilmington,  North  Carolina.  As  the  seed  is  not  on  the 
market  it  is  propagated  by  cuttings. 

Carpet-grass  is  another  species,  with  comparatively 
coarse  foliage  and  creeping  or  stoloniferous  stems,  adapted 
to  the  moist  region  of  the  Gulf  coast.  It  occurs  naturally 
there  and  tends  to  invade  the  open  moist  grassland  of 
pastures  and  lawns.  The  seed  is  not  on  the  market  but 
the  plant  may  be  propagated  by  cuttings. 

Canada  blue-grass  is  sometimes  used  on  sterile  clay  or 
lime-poor  soils  of  the  humid  regions,  where  blue-grass 
does  not  thrive. 

Fescue  grasses  are  rarely  used  alone  but  are  often 
sown  in  mixtures.  Various-leaved  fescue  is  used  under 
trees  on  lawns  as  it  thrives  better  than  other  grasses  in 
partial  shade.  All  the  fescues  used  for  lawn  mixtures,  red 
fescue,  hard  fescue,  sheep's  fescue,  firm-leaved  fescue  and 
various-leaved  fescue  have  short,  firm  leaves  that  require 
little  cutting,  but  they  are  all  bunch  grasses  and  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  produce  with  them  a  uniform  turf. 


64  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Buffalo-grass  gives  excellent  results  in  the  semi-arid 
region  of  the  Great  Plains.  The  seed  is  not  on  the  market 
but  the  grass  is  easily  grown  from  cuttings.  It  forms  a 
firm  sod  like  Bermuda-grass  and  has  the  same  objection 
of  being  light  green  in  color.  Buffalo-grass  requires  no 
mowing  as  the  foliage  remains  short  and  curly. 

Rye-grass  is  sometimes  used  for  lawns  though  it  pos- 
sesses few  of  the  necessary  characteristics.  It  is  used 
chiefly  in  mixtures  to  produce  quick  results  as  it  grows 
vigorously  the  first  season.  It  is  coarse  and  bunchy  and 
not  suited  to  a  lawn  when  sown  alone. 

Korean  lawn-grass  is  coming  into  use  along  the  coast 
from  South  Carolina  to  Florida. 

82.  Lawn  mixtures.— One  of  the  characteristics  of  an 
ideal  lawn  is  uniformity  of  texture.  This  can  be  obtained 
only  when  a  lawn  is  made  up  of  a  single  species.  To  pro- 
duce a  lawn  of  uniform  texture  requires  special  care. 
From  the  standpoint  of  practicability  it  may  not 
always  be  convenient  or  even  possible  to  fulfil  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  an  ideal  lawn.  Hence,  the  use  of 
mixtures  by  which  better  results  in  some  ways  may  be 
obtained  than  by  using  a  single  species.  This  applies 
particularly  to  the  humid  regions.  The  character  or  con- 
dition of  the  soil  may  be  such  as  to  prevent  the  produc- 
tion of  a  uniform  stand  of  a  single  species.  It  is  well 
known  that  a  properly  chosen  mixture  will  in  these  cases 
produce  a  thicker  turf  and  will  do  so  in  a  shorter  time  than 
if  a  single  species  is  grown. 

The  chief  or  even  the  only  objection  to  a  mixture  is 
the  lack  of  uniformity.  A  closely  mown  lawn  will  show 
variations  in  color  corresponding  to  the  different  species 
of  which  it  is  composed.  Rye-grass  is  sometimes  included 
in  a  mixture  to  give  quick  returns,  the  other  components 


LAWNS  65 

developing  later.  Grain,  especially  rye,  may  be  used  for 
the  same  purpose.  This  practice  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended if  a  first-class  lawn  is  desired.  It  is  to  be  looked 
upon  as  a  makeshift  to  take  the  place  of  careful  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil. 

White  clover  is  often  used  in  mixtures,  the  only  dis- 
advantage being  that  it  interferes  with  the  uniformity 
of  appearance.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  a  distinct 
advantage  in  that  it  acts  as  a  soil  renovator  and  tends  to 
maintain  its  fertility,  this  being  due  to  the  presence  of 
nitrogen-fixing  nodules  on  the  roots  (Par.  15). 

83.  Preparation  of  the  soil. — It  is  necessary  that  the 
soil  intended  for  a  lawn  should  be  placed  in  the  best  pos- 
sible condition  for  receiving  the  seed.  It  should  be  ren- 
dered light  and  porous  to  the  depth  of  10  inches  or  more 
by  suitable  tilth,  should  be  well  drained,  and  should  be  of 
the  best  consistency,  that  is  of  the  combination  of  sand, 
clay  and  humus  known  as  rich  loam.  It  is  usually  neces- 
sary in  addition  to  thorough  tillage  to  fertilize  the  soil. 
Well-rotted  barnyard  manure,  free  from  weed  seed,  is 
the  best  fertilizer,  but  not  always  easy  to  obtain.  Com- 
mercial fertilizer  may  be  used  alone  or  with  barnyard 
manure,  the  amount  depending  on  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
Poor  soil  may  take  400  pounds  an  acre  of  bone-meal. 
Wood-ashes  supply  potash  and  render  heavy  soils  lighter. 
Lime  should  be  added  when  necessary  to  counteract 
acidity  if  blue-grass  is  to  be  used. 

84.  Seeding. — Only  the  highest  grade  seed  should  be 
used.  There  is  great  variation  in  the  weight  of  blue-grass 
seed,  depending  on  the  proportion  of  chaff.  Good  seed 
should  weigh  about  22  pounds  to  the  bushel.  Of  such 
seed  three  bushels  should  be  sown  to  the  acre.  The  seed 
should  be  sown  evenly  and  rolled  or  lightly  raked  in.   The 


66  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

seeds  are  small  and  should  not  be  covered  deeply.  It  is 
important  to  keep  the  lawn  as  free  as  possible  from  weeds 
while  becoming  established.  After  the  grasses  have  formed 
a  firm  sod  or  turf,  weeds  have  little  chance  to  intrude. 
If  the  soil  and  the  applied  manure  be  free  from  weed  seeds, 
the  task  of  weeding  during  the  first  season  will  be  much 
simplified. 

85.  Subsequent  care. — The  lawn  should  be  frequently 
mowed,  watered,  weeded,  and  rolled  if  it  is  to  be  brought 
to  its  maximum  effectiveness.  If  unfavorable  circum- 
stances have  caused  the  death  of  the  grass  in  spots  or  if 
in  small  areas  the  grass  failed  to  grow,  here  the  weeds 
appear  later.  Such  spots  should  be  reseeded.  It  is  much 
easier  to  obtain  a  uniform  stand  at  the  first  sowing  than 
to  patch  up  afterward  an  irregular  stand.  Some  weedy 
grasses  make  a  good  appearance  early  in  the  season  but 
later  die  out,  leaving  unsightly  bare  patches  in  the  sum- 
mer. This  is  true  of  crab-grass  and  annual  blue-grass 
(Poa  annua). 

86.  Watering. — Blue-grass  lawns  usually  require  for 
their  best  development  more  water  than  is  supplied  by  the 
natural  rainfall.  This  is  especially  true  during  the  dry 
periods  that  usually  occur  during  summer.  Artificial 
watering  by  garden  hose  is  the  usual  method  of  meeting 
the  deficit.  The  water  should  be  applied  in  the  late  after- 
noon or  evening  as  damage  may  result  from  watering  dur- 
ing the  heat  of  the  day.  Water  should  not  be  applied  in 
full  force  direct  from  the  nozzle,  as  the  soil  may  be  washed 
away  from  the  roots.  A  spray  nozzle  prevents  this. 
Thorough  soaking  from  time  to  time  is  better  than  more 
frequent  light  sprinkling.  Light  and  frequent  sprinkling 
encourages  a  shallow  root-system,  readily  injured  by 
drought. 


LAWNS  67 

87.  Turfing. — On  account  ©f  the  care  and  trouble 
necessary  to  seed  a  lawn  it  is  a  common  practice  in  cities 
to  produce  results  quickly  by  laying  on  fresh  turf  cut  from 
an  old  grass  plot.  If  properly  done  this  will  give  good 
results.  The  turf  or  sod  should  be  pure  grass  free  from 
weeds  and  should  be  laid  on  well-prepared,  rich,  loamy 
soil  such  as  described  under  seeding.  The  custom  of  apply- 
ing a  layer  of  vegetation,  part  grass  and  part  a  miscellane- 
ous collection  of  weeds,  to  a  soil  consisting  of  the  refuse 
from  the  building  operations  will  never  give  satisfactory 
results.  Such  a  lawn  is  a  permanent  source  of  regret  and 
no  amount  of  faithful  watering  can  materially  improve 
it.  It  is  better  to  dig  it  up  and  start  again  in  the  proper 
manner.    (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  494.) 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GRASSES  FOR  MISCELLANEOUS  PURPOSES 

Besides  the  three  chief  uses  of  grasses,  there  are  others 
of  considerable  but  comparatively  minor  importance. 
These  uses  will  be  considered  under  the  following  heads: 
Ornamental  grasses,  Soil-binders,  Sugar-producing  grasses, 
Textile  grasses,  and  other  uses. 

ORNAMENTAL    GRASSES 

88.  Grasses  may  be  grown  for  ornament  because  of 
their  handsome  inflorescence,  such  as  that  of  the  plume- 
grasses,  or  the  alleged  beauty  of  the  foliage,  such  as  that  of 
the  ribbon-grass  and  other  grasses  with  variegated  leaves. 
Some  are  used  for  making  dry  bouquets,  the  delicate 
inflorescence  holding  its  form  after  being  detached. 

There  are  three  large  species  that  are  commonly  used 
for  lawn  decoration.  They  are  plume-grass,  giant  reed, 
and  Eulalia.  Plume-grass  has  long  narrow  leaves  taper- 
ing to  a  fine  point  and  a  large  white  or  pink  feathery 
plume  1  to  2  feet  long.  The  leaves  are  in  a  large  cluster  at 
the  base  and  the  plume  is  raised  on  a  tall  slender  stalk 
several  feet  high  (Par.  246).  Another  plume-grass  less 
frequently  seen  in  America  is  the  Ravenna-grass  (Par. 
206).  Giant  reed  has  broad  leaves  scattered  along  the 
stem  as  in  corn,  and  a  large  oblong  plume  (Par.  247). 
Eulalia  has  clusters  of  long  narrow  leaves  at  the  base  and 
a  slender  stalk  rising  a  little  above  the  leaves,  bearing 
(68) 


GRASSES  FOR  MISCELLANEOUS  PURPOSES       69 

rather  small  (6  to  12  inches  long)  fan-shaped  brownish 
plumes  (Par.  204).  Another  grass  of  this  habit,  Thysoloena 
agrostis,  is  often  grown  in  the  tropics.  A  common  orna- 
mental garden  grass  is  ribbon-grass  or  gardener's  garters. 
Several  small  grasses  are  grown  for  bouquets,  such  as 
trembling  or  quaking  grass. 

89.  The  bamboos  are  important  ornamentals  in  the 
tropical  regions  and  are  much  cultivated  in  Florida  and 
California.  A  few  species  are  hardy  farther  north.  Among 
these  may  be  mentioned  Arundinaria  japonica,  a  shrubby 
form  growing  5  to  10  feet  high,  and  certain  species  of 
Phyllostachys.  There  are  several  species  of  Phyllostachys 
introduced  in  cultivation  but  their  specific  identity  is  in 
doubt  as  many  have  not  been  known  to  flower. 

SOIL-BINDING    GRASSES 

90.  In  order  to  prevent  banks  and  slopes  from  wash-' 
ing  or  sand-dunes  from  blowing,  they  may  be  planted 
with  grass  or  other  vegetation.  Such  plants  are  known 
as  soil-binders.  More  particularly,  those  that  hold  sand- 
dunes  in  place  are  called  sand-binders.  Any  kind  of 
vegetation  will  hold  soil  or  sand  in  place,  but  plants  used 
by  man  for  this  purpose  are  provided  with  strong  creep- 
ing rootstocks  that  quickly  penetrate  and  bind  the  soil. 
Grasses  most  frequently  used  for  the  holding  of  banks 
and  slopes  are  Bermuda-grass  in  the  South  and  Kentucky 
blue-grass  in  the  humid  region.  The  giant  reed  is  used 
along  irrigation  ditches  in  the  Southwest.  Japanese  honey- 
suckle (Lonicera  japonica  Thunb.)  is  proving  excellent  for 
holding  slopes  in  Maryland  and  Virginia. 

91.  Sand-dunes. — The  fixing  of  shifting  sand-dunes  is 
an  important  industry  in  Europe  where  much  waste  land 


70  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

has  been  reclaimed.  In  the  United  States  there  are  several 
areas  of  sand-dunes,  the  most  important  being  on  Cape 
Cod  near  Provincetown,  Cape  Henry,  Virginia,  along  the 
south  end  and  east  side  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  along  the 
Columbia  River,  Oregon,  in  the  semi-arid  region.  Sand- 
dunes  are  formed  by  the  wind  blowing  the  dry  sand. 
Dunes  that  are  bare  of  vegetation  shift  gradually  as  the 
prevailing  wind  blows  the  sand  over  the  crest.  When 
vegetation  becomes  established  the  wind  is  unable  to 
move  the  sand  and  the  dunes  become  fixed. 

Moving  dunes  may  do  much  damage  when  formed  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  works  of  man  by  covering  up  buildings 
or  railroad  tracks,  or,  when  formed  near  streams  or 
harbors,  by  diverting  the  course  of  the  one  or  filling  the 
other,  or  when  formed  near  a  forest  which  they  may  over- 
whelm. Sand-dunes  are  formed  along  the  sandy  shores 
of  the  ocean  or  of  large  lakes  when  the  prevailing  winds 
are  from  the  water.  The  waves  are  constantly  throwing 
up  sand  w^hich,  when  dry,  is  blown  upon  the  beach,  form- 
ing hills.  The  same  often  occurs  along  rivers  in  dry  regions, 
as  along  the  Columbia  above  the  Dallas,  and  along  the 
Arkansas  in  western  Kansas. 

92.  Reclaiming  sand-dunes. — Moving  dunes  are 
worthless  for  agricultural  purposes  and  may  be  a  menace 
to  property.  The  first  step  in  reclaiming  such  dunes  is 
to  fix  the  sand  by  applying  a  covering  to  prevent  its  being 
shifted  by  the  wind.  Interior  dunes  have  been  success- 
fully fixed  in  Europe  by  covering  wdth  cut  heather,  a 
common  plant  in  sandy  wastes.  In  other  places  brush  or 
rows  of  sticks  thrust  into  the  sand  have  served  the  pur- 
pose. One  of  the  most  successful  methods  has  been  the 
planting  of  beach-grass.  After  the  shifting  of  the  sand 
has  been  prevented  l\y  any  of  these  methods,  trees  are 


GRASSES  FOR  MISCELLANEOUS  PURPOSES       71 

planted  which  in  time  produce  a  forest,  the  dunes  being 
thus  permanently  fixed.  The  waste  land  has  now  become 
productive,  as  the  forest  under  proper  care  yields  an 
income.   The  trees  cannot  be  started  on  the  shifting  sand. 

93.  Sand-binders. — Except  near  the  seashore  the 
function  of  grass  or  of  an  inert  covering  is  temporary,  as 
the  land  is  ultimately  converted  into  forest.  Along  the 
seashore  where  a  barrier  dune  is  formed  the  action  of  the 
spray  from  the  ocean  prevents  the  growth  of  trees.  On 
this  barrier  dune  which  protects  the  forest  in  the  rear  from 
the  aggressive  action  of  the  sand,  the  grass  covering  must 
remain  indefinitely  and  must  be  kept  in  condition  by  con- 
stant attention  after  it  is  planted. 

A  sand-binder  must  be  a  plant  that  will  thrive  in  the 
sand,  and  that  possesses  an  abundance  of  vigorous 
creeping  rootstocks  that  will  bind  the  sand  and  prevent 
its  being  blown  by  the  wind.  The  best  sand-binder  is 
beach-grass,  or  marram-grass  (Aynmophila  arenaria),  a 
native  of  the  sea  beaches  of  Europe  and  of  Atlantic  North 
America  as  far  south  as  North  Carolina.  It  is  also  found 
along  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes.  An  important  char- 
acter of  beach-grass  is  that  it  thrives  best  where  the  sand 
is  drifting.  Here  it  continually  rejuvenates  and  grows  up 
through  the  sand  as  it  is  covered.  A  few  other  grasses  have 
been  tried  but  none  give  as  good  results. 

94.  Fixing  sand  with  beach-grass. — Beach-grass  is 
propagated  by  transplanting  and  not  from  seed.  The 
planting  is  best  done  in  the  fall  between  maturity,  which  is 
about  September,  and  the  time  when  the  ground  freezes. 
It  can  also  be  done  in  spring  before  growth  starts.  Plants 
for  the  purpose  are  chosen  from  a  nearby  plot  where  the 
grass  is  growing  vigorously.  Those  chosen  should  be  two 
years  old  and  should  have  one  or  two  nodes  on  the  root- 


72  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

stock  at  the  base.  It  is  from  these  nodes  that  the  roots 
spring.  The  planting  is  best  done  on  a  cloudy  day,  A 
hole  is  made  by  thrusting  a  spade  or  other  sharp  imple- 
ment into  the  sand,  the  plant  is  placed  in  the  opening 
and  the  sand  pressed  around  it  with  the  foot.  If  beach- 
grass  does  not  grow  in  the  vicinity,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  establish  a  preliminary  plantation.  It  is  useless  to 
attempt  to  grow  beach-grass  in  interior  arid  regions. 

In  America,  notable  fixation  work  has  been  done  near 
Provincetown,  Massachusetts,  at  Manatee  and  other 
points  along  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  at 
Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco.  The  latter  place  was 
once  a  sandy  waste  but  is  now  a  beautiful  park.  The  pre- 
liminary steps  here  were  the  planting  of  beach-grass. 
(See  Bur.  PI.  Ind.  Bulletins  Nos.  57,  65.) 

SUGAR-PRODUCING    GRASSES 

95.  The  sugar  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  four 
sources,  sugar-cane,  sugar  beet,  sorghum,  and  sugar  maple. 
The  amount  from  the  last  two  is  comparatively  insignificant. 
Chemically,  commercial  sugar  is  cane-sugar  or  sucrose. 

96.  The  sugar-cane  is  a  large  perennial  grass  grown 
in  all  tropical  countries.  In  the  United  States  its  growth 
is  chiefly  confined  to  the  lowlands  of  Louisiana.  This 
state  in  1900  produced  132,000  tons  of  sugar.  The  same 
year  the  two  largest  sugar-producing  countries  yielded, 
Java  650,000  tons,  and  Cuba  440,000  tons.  These  figures 
refer  to  sugar  from  sugar-cane.*  It  is  interesting  to  note 
that  Europe  produced  the  same  year  over  4,000,000  tons 
of  beet-sugar,  or  a  third  more  than  the  total  world  produc- 
tion of  sugar  from  the  cane.   The  thirteenth  census  report 

♦Sadtler,  Industrial  Organic  Chemistry,  ed.  3,  pp.  166,  167. 


GRASSES  FOR  MISCELLANEOUS  PURPOSES        73 

states  that  in  1909  Louisiana  produced  4,941,996  tons  of 
sugar-cane,  which  was  an  increase  of  57  per  cent  over 
that  produced  in  1899. 

Sugar  is  contained  in  the  juice  of  the  cane,  this  being 
extracted  from  the  stalks  by  crushing  between  rollers. 
The  juice  is  neutralized  with  hme,  boiled  and  clarified, 
and  concentrated  in  vacuum  pans.  The  sugar  separates 
in  crystals.  The  remaining  liquid  is  called  molasses.  Rum 
is  made  by  distilling  fermented  molasses.  The  sugar-cane 
often  flowers  abundantly  in  the  tropics,  but  rarely  produces 
seed.   It  is  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  stem. 

97.  Sorgho,  or  sorghum. — As  indicated  in  Par.  57 
there  are  several  varieties  of  sorghum,  some  of  which,  the 
saccharine  sorghums,  have  a  sweet  juice  containing  enough 
cane-sugar  to  make  the  extraction  a  commercial  possibility. 
In  the  region  from  Kansas  to  North  Carolina  a  small 
amount  of  sorghum  is  grown  for  the  production  of  sugar, 
most  of  which  appears  on  the  market  in  the  form  of  syrup. 
The  total  amount  of  sorghum  syrup  produced  in  the  United 
States  in  1909  was  16,532,282  gallons.*  The  five  leading 
states  were  Kentucky,  2,733,683;  Tennessee,  2,076,339; 
Missouri,  1,788,391;  Arkansas,  1,140,532;  North  Carolina, 
1,099,346. 

TEXTILE    GRASSES 

98.  The  most  important  textile  grass  is  esparto,  the 

fiber  of  which  is  used  for  paper  and  cordage.  It  is  grown 
chiefly  in  Spain  and  North  Africa.  In  Algiers  the  grass  is 
called  alfa.  Annually  there  are  imported  into  England 
over  200,000  tons  of  esparto  tc  be  used  for  the  manufacture 
of  paper.  Two  species  of  grasses  furnish  the  esparto  of 
commerce — Stipa  tenacissima  and  Lygeum  spartemn. 

*13th  Census. 


74  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

OTHER    USES 

99.  The  bamboos  are  of  vast  importance  to  the  native 
people  of  the  regions  where  these  gigantic  grasses  grow. 
The  culms  or  stems  are  used  for  building  purposes,  the 
split  bamboo  is  woven  into  mats,  screens  and  a  variety  of 
other  articles,  the  sections  of  the  stems  with  the  solid 
partitions  are  used  as  utensils,  and  the  fiber  is  used  for 
paper.  The  wood  is  extremely  hard,  durable  and  flexible. 
The  bamboo  is  probably  put  to  a  greater  variety  of  uses 
than  is  any  other  plant.  The  straw  hats  known  on  the 
market  as  Bangkok  hats  are  made  from  bamboo. 
IschcBmum  angustifolium  is  used  in  India  as  a  substi- 
tute or  adulterant  of  jute  for  cotton  baling  for  the  Ameri- 
can trade.  Rice  straw  is  extensively  used  in  Japan  and 
other  eastern  countries  for  matting,  a  large  proportion 
of  the  wrapping  of  heavy  freight  being  of  this  material. 
Rice  is  also  used  for  paper,  although  the  so-called  rice- 
paper  is  made  from  the  bark  of  the  paper  mulberry.  The 
straw  of  grains  is  used  for  making  straw  hats,  an  especially 
fine  quality  being  used  in  Italy. 

100.  Green-manuring. — Grasses,  especially  the  grains, 
are  used,  as  are  legumes  and  some  other  plants,  for  green- 
manuring.  For  this  purpose,  the  plants  are  turned  under 
by  plowing  about  the  time  they  reach  maturity.  Heavy 
soils  are  made  lighter,  since  the  green  vegetation  tends  to 
produce  humus.  It  is  usually  more  profitable  to  combine 
green-manuring  with  pasturing  as  one  can  scarcely  afford 
to  give  up  an  entire  season  to  a  crop  for  turning  under. 
Furthermore,  land  that  most  needs  the  manure  will  give 
the  smallest  crop  to  turn  under.  Stable  manure  accom- 
plishes results  much  sooner,  but,  of  course,  is  not  always 
available.    (See  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  278.) 


CHAPTER   IX 
WEEDS 

A  WEED  is  a  plant  troublesome  to  man.  In  the  more 
restricted  sense  it  is  an  herbaceous  plant  that  becomes 
aggressively  troublesome  in  cultivated  fields.  Plants 
may  become  weeds  because  of  their  intrusiveness,  as 
bindweed  (Convolvulus  arvensis  L.)  and  Canada  thistle 
(Cirsium  arvense  (L.)  Scop.)  or  they  may  be  able  quickly 
to  occupy  waste  land,  dooryards,  or  roadsides,  as  knot- 
weed  (Polygonum  aviculare  L.),  horseweed  (Erigeron 
canadensis  L.)  and  ragweed  (Ambrosia  trifida  L.).  Others 
may  become  weeds  in  pastures  because,  not  being  eaten 
by  stock,  they  thrive  at  the  expense  of  the  palatable 
species. 

101.  Classes  of  weeds. — Weeds  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes  according  to  method  of  growth.  These  are 
annuals  and  biennials,  perennials  with  crowns,  and  peren- 
nials with  rhizomes  or  creeping  roots.  Methods  of  eradi- 
cating depend  upon  the  group  to  which  the  weed  belongs. 
Annual  weeds  may  become  abundant,  but  are  not  difficult 
to  eradicate  as  they  may  be  pulled  up  or  removed  by 
cultivation.  Perennial  weeds  with  crowns  are  usually  not 
aggressive  but  may  become  conspicuous  in  pastures, 
especially  those  that  are  over-grazed.  Certain  kinds  of 
plants  usually  classed  with  this  group  differ  in  having  an 
upright  fleshy  caudex  capable  of  producing  adventitious 
buds  and  shoots.  These  may  become  troublesome  weeds 
in  pastures  or  lawois.  The  dandelion  (Taraxacum  Taraxa- 
(75) 


76  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

cum  (L.)  Karst.,  T.  officinale  Weber.)  is  a  familiar  exam- 
ple of  this  group.  Cutting  off  the  plant  below  the  crown 
does  not  destroy  the  dandelion,  as  adventitious  buds  may  be 
produced  on  the  cut  root  from  which  new  shoots  develop. 

102.  Perennial  weeds  with  creeping  rhizomes  or  creep- 
ing propagating  roots  include  the  most  troublesome 
species,  as  the  widely  spreading  rhizomes  or  roots  are 
difficult  to  remove  completely  from  the  soil.  Portions  of 
the  rhizomes  remaining  in  the  soil  may  give  rise  to  new 
shoots.  Creeping  propagating  roots  are  to  be  distinguished 
from  creeping  rhizomes  or  rootstocks,  which  are  modified 
stems.  Creeping  roots  possess  no  scales  or  modified 
leaves,  but  have  the  structure  of  roots.  They  will,  how- 
ever, if  they  are  propagating  roots,  have  the  power  to 
produce  adventitious  buds.  Some  weeds  with  creeping 
roots  are  bindweed  (Convolvulus  arvensis  L.)  and  sheep 
sorrel  (Rumex  Acetosella  L.).  None  of  the  weedy  grasses 
possesses  creeping  roots.  Creeping  rhizomes  indicate 
their  character  as  modified  stems  by  the  presence  of  scales 
that  mark  the  nodes  at  regular  intervals.  To  this  group 
belong  the  white  morning-glory  (Convolvulus  Septum  L.), 
the  nut-grass  (Cyperus  rotundus  L.)  and  Johnson-grass. 

103.  Weedy  grasses. — Grasses  may  be  of  all  degrees 
of  weediness.  Many  species  that  are  classed  as  weeds  are 
harmless  since  they  are  found  only  in  waste  places  or 
along  roadsides.  Among  these  are  goose-grass,  crowfoot- 
grass  and  old-witch  grass.  Only  a  few  of  the  more  impor- 
tant weedy  grasses  will  be  mentioned  here. 

104.  Annual  weeds. — In  the  eastern  states  the  com- 
mon species  are  green  foxtail,  yellow  foxtail,  and  upon 
sandy  land,  the  sandbur.  Here,  and  more  especially  in 
the  South,  crab-grass  is  a  common  weed.  All  these  yield 
readily  to  cultivation.    Crab-grass  is  particularly  trouble- 


WEEDS  77 

some  because  it  thrives  late  in  the  season  after  the  usual 
cultivation  of  the  crops  has  ceased.  Two  important 
weeds  in  blue-grass  lawns  are  crab-grass  and  annual  blue- 
grass.  The  latter  thrives  in  the  spring,  making  an  appear- 
ance pleasing  to  the  eye,  but  later  dies,  leaving  unsightly 
bare  spots.  In  the  same  way  crab-grass,  later  in  the 
season,  leaves  brown  patches  as  the  plants  die. 

105.  On  the  Pacific  coast  other  species  of  grasses 
become  weeds.  A  very  noticeable  group  are  the  annual 
species  of  Bromus.  They  are  of  some  value  as  forage 
when  young  but  soon  become  too  dry  and  prickly  from  the 
awns  of  the  inflorescence  to  be  palatable.  The  principal 
species  are  Bromus  commutatus,  B.  hordeaceus,  B.  ruhens, 
B.  tectorum  and  B.  villosus  (Par.  260).  Another  species, 
B.  secalinus,  the  common  cheat  or  chess,  is  found  in  grain 
fields  throughout  the  northern  United  States.  The  wild 
oat  is  abundant  on  the  Pacific  coast  in  grain  fields  and  on 
fallow  lands,  but  possesses  a  mitigating  character  in  that 
it  can  be  used  for  hay  (Par.  239).  Several  weedy  species 
belong  to  the  genus  Hordeum,  the  inflorescence  of  which 
possesses  numerous  rough  aAvns  that  are  troublesome 
when  mixed  with  hay.  There  are  three  annual  species, 
H.  pusillum,  H.  Gussoneanutn  and  H.  murinum.  The  last 
is  a  common  weed  in  alfalfa  fields  where  it  is  called  fox- 
tail and  barley-grass. 

106.  Perennial  weedy  grasses. — Of  the  group  that 
lack  creeping  rhizomes  there  are  few  that  are  troublesome. 
One  of  the  worst  of  them  is  Hordeum  juhatum,  which  in 
the  West  often  infests  alfalfa  fields.  It  is  called  squirrel- 
tail-grass,  but  locally  is  known  as  foxtail  in  Wyoming, 
barley-grass  in  Utah,  and  tickle-grass  in  Nevada. 

Many  species  become  conspicuous  in  overgrazed  pas- 
tures or  ranges  because  not  eaten  readily  by  stock.    To 


78  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF   GRASSES 

this  group  belong  the  spear  grasses,  species  of  Aristida, 
whose  sharp  fruits  with  the  triple  awns  become  a  nuisance 
or  even  a  serious  pest.  These  fruits  and  others  such  as 
those  of  Hordeum  and  Sitanion  work  their  way  into  the 
nostrils  and  eyes  of  animals  and  into  the  wool  of  sheep, 
or  form  hair-balls  in  the  stomach. 

107.  The  seriously  troublesome  weeds  in  cultivated 
soil  are  those  possessing  creeping  rhizomes.  There  are 
three  species  of  grasses  that  belong  in  this  category.  They 
are  Bermuda-grass,  Johnson-grass  and  quack-grass. 
Bermuda-grass  has  already  been  mentioned  (Par.  28). 
In  cultivated  soil  the  rhizomes  become  large  and  vigorous 
and  the  plant  is  usually  known  then  as  wire-grass.  Ber- 
muda is  a  common  weed  in  corn  and  cotton  fields  through- 
out the  southern  states.  Johnson-grass  is  exceedingly 
troublesome  in  the  black  soils  of  the  southern  states  (Par. 
49).  Quack-grass  is  a  bad  weed  in  the  humid  region  of 
the  northeastern  states.  It  is  also  called  quick-grass, 
quitch-grass  and  couch-grass. 

These  three  species,  like  all  weeds  with  rhizomes, 
cannot  be  eradicated  by  pulling  them  up  or  by  cultivation 
unless  all  of  the  rhizomes  are  removed,  since  a  single 
piece  of  rhizome  may  give  rise  to  a  shoot.  They  may  be 
greatly  reduced  in  this  way,  however.  On  a  large  scale 
they  may  be  kept  in  subjection  by  plowing  and  harrow- 
ing out  the  rhizomes,  after  which  they  are  burned  or 
removed  or  spread  so  as  to  be  dried  out  by  the  sun. 
Another  general  method  for  eradicating  such  weeds  is  to 
smother  them  with  a  vigorous  crop,  such  as  grain  or 
alfalfa.  Small  patches  may  be  attacked  to  advantage  with 
the  hoe,  cutting  off  all  the  green  shoots.  If  this  is  done 
frequently  the  rhizomes  are  exhausted  of  their  vitality 
and  are  unable  to  produce  more  shoots. 


CHAPTER  X 

GRASS-CROP  AREAS 

In  previous  chapters,  reference  has  been  made  under 
each  grass  crop  to  the  area  in  the  United  States  in  which 
it  thrives.  In  this  chapter  a  resume  will  be  given  of  the 
conditions  and  limitations  of  these  areas.  The  crop  areas 
depend  entirely  upon  climatic  conditions.  Soil  conditions 
modify  or  limit  the  distribution  of  crops  within  each  area. 
So  far  as  crops  are  concerned,  the  climatic  conditions  are 
moisture  and  temperature, 

108.  Moisture. — The  moisture,  so  far  as  it  concerns 
crop  areas,  depends  on  the  annual  rainfall  and  its  seasonal 
distribution.  Locally  crops  may  receive  water  by  seepage 
from  rivers  and  springs  but  such  sources  have  no  effect 
on  the  general  distribution  of  crops.  The  seasonal  dis- 
tribution of  the  rainfall  is  of  as  much  importance  as  the 
annual  rainfall,  for  the  crops  require  water  during  the 
growing  season.  The  amount  of  water  required  by  a  crop 
varies  with  the  evaporation,  which  depends  in  part 
upon  the  humidity.  Without  going  into  the  physical  and 
meteorological  details,  it  will  readily  be  understood  that 
latitude  and  altitude  modify  greatly  the  relation  between 
a  crop  and  its  water-requirement.  There  is  also  an  inti- 
mate connection  between  temperature  and  rainfall.  Soil 
conditions  modify  the  water  requirement  in  various  ways, 
but  not  sufficiently  to  have  any  material  effect  on  the 
large  crop  areas. 

109.  The  temperature  affects  evaporation  and  hence 

(79) 


80  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

the  water-requirement.  It  also  affects  directly  the  growth 
of  crops.  There  is  an  optimum  temperature  for  each 
crop  at  which  it  thrives  best.  The  temperature  through 
the  growing  season  is  of  the  most  importance,  though  for 
perennials  the  minimum  winter  temperature  may  be  a 
limiting  factor. 

110.  The  timothy  area. — This  area  extends  from  New 
England  to  the  southern  boundary  of  Virginia  and  farther 
south  in  the  mountains  and  west  to  Minnesota  and  east- 
ern Kansas,  approximately  to  the  96th  meridian.  In 
general  this  is  the  humid  area.  The  rainfall  is  sufficient 
on  the  average  for  the  growing,  without  irrigation,  of 
the  common  meadow-  and  pasture-grasses,  timothy 
and  blue -grass,  and  the  legume,  red  clover.  The 
rainfall  is  distributed  through  the  summer  or  growing 
season. 

There  are  other  humid  regions  in  the  United  States 
in  the  mountains  of  the  western  portion,  isolated  areas 
where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  and  the  altitude  not  too 
great.  Timothy  can  be  raised  in  Colorado  up  to  about 
9,000  or  even  10,000  feet  altitude.  At  higher  latitudes 
the  altitudinal  limit  is  lower.  The  most  important  humid 
region  of  the  West  is  the  upper  Pacific  coast  region  lying 
west  of  the  Cascades  and  extending  from  Puget  Sound 
south  into  northern  California.  This  differs  from  the 
eastern  humid  region  in  having  cooler  summers  and  milder 
winters  with  considerable  rainfall.  This  region  is  emi- 
nently adapted  to  pasture  crops  because  of  the  mild,  moist 
winters.  It  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  hay  crops  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  curing  hay  in  the  moist  climate.  (See 
Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  271.) 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  timothy  area,  the  Canada 
field  pea  is  much  used  (Par.  67).   In  the  eastern  part  along 


GRASS-CROP  AREAS  81 

the  coast  where  the  soil  is  often  acid,  redtop  becomes  the 
dominant  forage  grass  (Par.  32) . 

111.  The  Bermuda-grass  area. — This  area  occupies 
the  region  south  of  the  timothy  area  and  wesi  ^o  include 
eastern  Texas.  Approximately  this  is  also  the  cotton 
region.  The  annual  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  such  forage 
plants  as  timothy  and  clover  but  the  summers  are  too 
long  and  hot  for  the  development  of  these  crops.  Some  of 
the  annual  plants  of  the  timothy  region  such  as  the  grains, 
vetches,  and  crimson  clover,  can  be  grown  in  the  south  as 
winter  forage  crops.  The  rye-grasses,  though  short-lived 
perermials,  can  be  treated  as  annuals  and  will  give  good 
results  when  sown  in  the  fall  for  winter  forage.  (See  Far- 
mers' Bulletin  No.  509.) 

112.  The  Great  Plains. — This  is  the  area  lying  between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  two  areas  mentioned  above 
and  extending  from  north  to  south  across  the  United 
States,  and  beyond  its  boundaries  in  each  direction.  The 
annual  rainfall  along  the  eastern  border  is  about  30  inches. 
This  decreases  westward  until  it  is  about  15  inches  at  the 
base  of  the  mountains.  This  amount  is  too  small  for  the 
production  of  crops  adapted  to  the  humid  region  but  many 
specially  adapted  crops  can  be  raised  without  irrigation 
in  the  eastern  half  of  the  belt.  The  region  is  devoid  of 
forest  except  along  the  streams  of  the  eastern  part. 
Before  the  land  was  occupied  by  man  these  plains  were 
covered  with  grass,  the  dominant  species  being  buffalo- 
grass,  grama-grass  and  curly  mesquite,  all  low  grasses 
that  form  a  close  sod.  The  early  settlers  used  the  sod  to 
make  sod  houses. 

The  Great  Plains  are  eminently  adapted  to  stock- 
grazing  and  there  are  throughout,  but  more  particularly 
in  the  western  part,  numerous  large  stock  ranches.    The 

F 


82  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

water  of  the  comparatively  few  streams  is  supplemented 
by  wells,  many  of  which  are  over  100  feet  deep,  and  by 
dams  in  the  ravines  or  "draws"  that  catch  and  hold  the 
run-off  from  the  storm  water.  The  rainfall  may  come  in 
torrential  storms  and  much  of  the  water,  instead  of  being 
absorbed  by  the  soil,  runs  off  in  the  watercourses  and  is 
lost  to  the  area.  The  native  vegetation  has  already  been 
described  (Par.  23). 

113.  Forage  crops  for  the  Great  Plains. — Within 
recent  years  a  large  part  of  the  eastern  half  of  this  belt 
has  been  converted  into  farms,  and  much  of  the  native 
sod  has  been  placed  under  cultivation.  As  modern  methods 
for  dry-farming  come  into  more  general  use,  and  crops 
especially  adapted  to  dry  regions  are  more  widely  grown, 
more  and  more  of  the  Great  Plains  will  be  utilized  for  the 
growing  of  crops.  In  the  western  part  of  the  belt  irriga- 
tion is  practised  in  many  places  either  by  ditches  from  the 
larger  rivers,  as  the  Platte  and  Arkansas,  or  from  deep 
wells  by  means  of  windmills  or  gasoline  engines,  or  from 
ponds  that  catch  the  storm  water.  The  forage  crops 
adapted  to  this  region  are  millet  ( Par.  56 )  for  the  eastern 
half  of  the  belt;  brome-grass  (Par  31)  for  the  region  from 
Nebraska  to  Montana  and  Minnesota;  and  the  sorghums 
for  the  region  from  Kansas  to  Texas.  Kafir  is  grown  for 
grain  and  forage.  It  is  usually  planted  in  rows  and  culti- 
vated. Saccharine  sorghums,  such  as  the  Amber  and 
Orange  varieties,  are  much  grown  for  hay.  For  this  purpose 
they  are  sown  thickly  and  mowed  with  a  machine. 

The  grains  grown  for  the  seed  over  the  eastern  and 
central  portion  of  the  belt  furnish  also  no  inconsiderable 
amount  of  forage.  It  is  a  common  practice  in  the  winter 
wheat  region  to  pasture  the  wheat  fields  in  the  fall  and 
early  winter.    The  most  important  forage  crop  is  alfalfa. 


GRASS-CROP  AREAS  83 

With  proper  care  in  preparation  of  the  soil  and  in  seeding, 
this  leguminous  crop  can  be  grown  without  irrigation  over 
a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  area. 

114.  The  arid  region. — This  includes  all  the  region 
west  of  the  Great  Plains  where  the  rainfall  is  insufficient 
for  the  growth  of  crops  without  the  aid  of  irrigation. 
Besides  the  two  main  mountain  systems,  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada,  there  are  numerous 
smaller  ranges  throughout  the  region  between.  The  term 
Great  Basin  strictly  applies  to  that  portion  such  as  most 
of  Utah  and  Nevada  which  has  no  drainage  to  the  sea. 
This  name  is  often  applied  in  a  loose  way  to  the  whole 
region  between  the  two  mountain  systems  mentioned. 
The  general  level  of  this  interior  region  is  at  4,000  to  5,000 
feet  altitude.  Usually  at  higher  altitudes  in  the  mountains 
the  climate  is  increasingly  moist.  Above  about  8,000 
feet  the  climate  is  usually  humid  and  the  slopes  are  in 
general  more  or  less  forested. 

The  climate  of  the  plains  and  valleys  is  arid.  Crops 
are  raised  only  as  water  for  irrigation  can  be  obtained  from 
the  streams.  Much  of  the  area  is  sufficiently  arid  to  be 
called  a  desert.  This  is  especially  so  in  the  southern  part 
where  the  summers  are  longer.  Under  favorable  conditions 
crops  can  be  raised  by  applying  the  methods  of  dry-land 
farming.  Such  may  be  the  case  at  the  base  of  a  mountain 
slope  where  there  is  sub-irrigation  through  seepage  from 
the  mountain.  The  great  proportion  of  this  arid  region 
is  used  for  stock-grazing  in  so  far  as  it  can  be  used  at  all 
for  agricultural  purposes.  Most  of  the  grazing  is  in  the 
mountains  but  there  is  some  forage  on  the  desert  which  is 
utilized  if  water  for  stock  is  available  (Par.  20).  Where 
there  is  snow  in  winter,  sheep  can  be  pastured,  the  animals 
depending  on  the  snow  for  their  water-supply. 


84 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


115.  The  Pacific  slope. — In  the  great  interior  valley 
of  California  and  northward  through  eastern  Oregon, 
eastern  Washington  and  northern  Idaho,  the  rainfall  comes 
mostly  in  the  winter,  this  season  being  comparatively 
mild.  Under  these  conditions  the  winter  season  is  adapted 
to  the  growth  without  irrigation  of  annual  crops  such  as 
grain.  The  summers  are  hot  and  dry,  and  irrigation  is 
necessary  for  summer  crops  such  as  alfalfa.  The  region 
to  the  northwest  of  this  is  humid  (Par.  110). 

116.  The  relative  importance  of  the  different  kinds 
of  forage  in  the  different  regions  of  the  United  States.— 
The  production  (tons)  of  the  kinds  of  forage  mentioned  by 
the  thirteenth  census  report  is  given  in  the  following 
table,  each  being  arranged  by  states.  The  production  of 
each  kind  of  forage  in  the  United  States  is  shown  in  Figs. 
2  to  10. 


TABLE  XVII 

The  Production  (Tons)  of  Hay  and  Forage  for  1909,  by  the  Ten 
Leading  States,  of  Each  Kind  of  Forage 


Timothy 


1.  Ohio 2,348,660 

2.  Iowa 1,952,956 

3.  Illinois 1,947,572 

4.  Indiana 1,442,218 

6.  Missouri 1,334,556 


6.  Pennsylvania 

7.  New  York     . 

8.  Wisconsin 

9.  Minnesota    . 
10.  Michigan 


1,200,073 
1,159,083 
1,110,446 
1,101,510 
929,165 


1.  Iowa    .    .    .    . 

2.  New  York      . 

3.  Wisconsin   .    . 

4.  Michigan     .    . 

5.  Pennsylvania 


Timothy  and  clover  mixed 

.   3,732,186         6.  Missouri       ....  1,630,211 

.    3,215,021         7.  Minnesota    ....  1,433,075 

.    2,477,311         8.  Ohio      1,346,347 

.    1,991,618         9.  Illinois       1,123,254 

.    1,830,852       10.  Vermont       ....  628,098 


Clover  alone 


1.  Illinois 539,790 

2.  Indiana      314,818 

3.  Missouri 309,209 

4.  Ohio 239,492 

6.  Michigan 216,862 


6.  Tennessee 201,926 

7.  Iowa 195,579 

8.  Wisconsin 193,786 

9.  New  York 114,864 

10.  Minnesota 106,334 


GRASS-CROP  AREAS 


85 


1.  Kansas    . 

2.  California 

3.  Nebraska 

4.  Colorado 

5.  Idaho  .   . 


Table  XVII,  continued 

Alfalfa 

1,998,689         6.  Utah 791,355 

1,639,707         7.  Montana 599,747 

1,522,136         8.  Wyoming 397,669 

1,265,915         9.  Oregon 375,445 

964,529       10.   Washington     ....  357,595 


Millet  or  Hungarian  grass 


1.  Kansas       290,661 

2.  Nebraska       160,684 

3.  North  Dakota       .    .    .  149,429 

4.  Missouri 141,626 

5.  Texas 95,352 


6.  Tennessee 

7.  Oklahoma 

8.  South  Dakota 

9.  Iowa       .    .    . 
10.   Minnesota 


Other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses 


1.  New  York 412,479 

2.  Maine 258,789 

3.  Tennessee 218,482 

4.  Minnesota 188,371 

5.  Vermont 160,014 


6.  Connecticut     .    . 

7.  Massachusetts     . 

8.  Kentucky     .    .    . 

9.  Texas        .    .    .    . 
10.   New  Hampshire 


76,311 
75,591 
65,844 
54,346 
50,383 


159,365 
150,723 
139,382 
138,758 
131,621 


Wild,  salt,  or  prairie  grasses 


1.  Nebraska    .    . 

2.  South  Dakota 

3.  Minnesota 

4.  North  Dakota 
6.  Kansas    .    .    . 


3,097,822 
2,798,263 
2,714,121 
2,372,618 
1,7.37,632 


6.  Iowa      .    . 

7.  Oklahoma 

8.  Montana 

9.  Wisconsin 
10.   Colorado 


1,178,000 
607,120 
589,860 
497,622 
368,408 


Grains  cut  green 


1.  California   .    . 

2.  Oregon    .    .    . 

3.  Washington    . 

4.  Idaho      .    .    . 
6.  Tennessee  .    . 


2,019,526  6.  South  Carolina        .    .  133,996 

509,030         7.   Georgia        128,929 

499,955         8.  Louisiana 127,126 

140,098  9.  North  Carolina  .    .    .  118,687 

136,674       10.  Illinois 99,828 


Coarse,  forage 


1.  New  York      ....  1,876,795 

2.  Kansas 1,263,231 

3.  Texas 688,274 

4.  Wisconsin 571,441 

5.  Iowa 510,184 


6.  Vermont 452,461 

7.  Ohio 443,512 

8.  Pennsylvania      .    .    .  422,925 

9.  Minnesota 401,614 

10.   Michigan 379,279 


117.  Remarks  on  Table  XVII. — In  order  to  under- 
stand the  classification  of  the  forage  plants  in  the  census 
report,  the  following  extract  is  quoted  from  "Instruc- 


86  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

tions  for  Clerks  in  Tabulation  Subdivision  II,  Agricul- 
ture," being  a  part  of  Inquiry  43,  concerning  hay  and 
forage  crops. 

(a)  Tabulate  as  "clover  alone"  all  crops  reported  after  that 
designation,  as  well  as  all  reported  as  "alsike,"  "red  clover,"  "crimson 
clover;"  also  other  clovers  unmixed  with  other  grasses.  The  same 
crops  reported  as  mixed  with  timothy  or  herd's  grass  should  be 
tabulated  as  "timothy  and  clover  mixed."  When  reported  as  mixed 
with  grasses  other  than  timothy  or  herd's-grass,  they  should  be 
tabulated  as  "other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses." 

(b)  Tabulate  as  "other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses"  all  crops 
reported  after  that  designation,  as  well  as  all  reported  as  "red- 
top,"  "June-grass,"  "orchard-grass,"  "blue-grass,"  and  "Johnson- 
grass;"  also  all  combinations  of  these  grasses  with  any  of  the  clover 
crops  mentioned  in  paragraph  a,  preceding,  or  with  timothy. 

(c)  Tabulate  as  "wild,  salt,  or  prairie  grasses"  all  crops  reported 
after  that  designation,  as  well  as  all  reported  as  "marsh-grass," 
"swamp-grass,"  "slough-grass,"  "bluestem,"  "daisies,"  and  "butter- 
cups." 

(d)  Tabulate  as  "grains  cut  green"  all  crops  reported  after  that 
designation  without  specific  names,  or  with  the  name  "oats," 
"wheat,"  "barley,"  "rye,"  "peas,"  "cowpeas,"  "soybeans,"  "velvet- 
beans,"  or  "vetches."  Keep  a  memorandum  of  the  names  of  all 
crops  reported  with  specific  names  and  tabulated  as  "grains  cut 
green." 

(e)  Tabulate  as  "coarse  forage"  all  crops  reported  after  that 
designation  without  specific  names,  or  with  the  name  "corn"  (see 
paragraph  i  below),  "sweet  corn,"  "cane,"  "sorghum,"  "Kafir  corn," 
"Jerusalem  corn,"  "milo  maize,"  or  kindred  crops. 

Timothy  and  clover,  alone  and  mixed,  constitute  the 
first  three  items  of  the  classification  under  hay  and  forage. 
These  plants  are  grown  in  the  humid  region  (Par.  110), 
though  the  New  England  states,  with  the  exception  of 
Vermont,  are  not  represented.  Ohio,  Iowa,  Illinois,  New 
York,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota  are  represented  in  each 
of  the  lists  of  ten  leading  states  for  these  forage  plants. 


GRASS-CROP  AREAS  87 

The  leading  alfalfa  states  are  all  west  of  the  Missouri 
River,  although  it  is  note-worthy  that  the  state  of  first 
rank,  Kansas,  lies  on  the  eastern  border  of  the  region. 
With  the  exception  of  Tennessee,  the  leading  millet 
states  lie  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

The  states  leading  in  the  production  of  forage  classi- 
fied as  "other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses"  are  those  of 
the  New  England  division,  together  with  the  adjacent 
state  of  New  York,  and  the  more  remote  states  of  Minne- 
sota, Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  Texas.  In  the  north- 
eastern states  the  most  important  element  is  redtop.  In 
Texas,  as  in  other  southern  states,  Johnson-grass  is  an 
important  factor.  In  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  orchard- 
grass  is  an  important  forage  plant.  The  states  leading  in 
the  production  of  wild  hay,  with  the  exception  of  Wis- 
consin, lie  in  the  Great  Plains  region  where  the  bulk  of 
the  product  is  made  up  of  mixed  prairie  grasses.  In  Wis- 
consin an  important  factor  is  blue-joint  (Calamagrostis 
canadensis). 

Most  of  the  elements  in  the  classification  of  hay  and 
forage  represent  summer-grown  crops.  The  category 
referred  to  as  "grains  cut  green"  assumes  importance  in 
two  regions,  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  southern  states.  In 
the  first  region  the  best  conditions  for  grain-growing 
obtain  in  the  winter  season,  during  which  the  greatest 
rainfall  of  the  year  occurs.  Because  of  these  conditions 
hay  made  from  grain  is  the  most  available  forage.  In  the 
second  region  cowpea  hay  is  an  important  crop.  Canada 
field  pea,  an  important  crop  along  our  northern  border, 
is  included  in  the  figures  for  "grains  cut  green."  Under 
the  last  heading,  "coarse  forage,"  are  included  corn  and 
sorghum  cut  for  forage. 


88  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

LIST  OF  GOVERNMENT  PUBLICATIONS  REFERRING  TO  FORAGE 
CROPS  AND  SPECIAL  USES  OF  GRASSES 

The  list  is  not  complete  but  indicates  the  more  impor- 
tant recent  publications.  The  bulletins  of  the  state 
experiment  stations  should  also  be  consulted  by  the 
student.  Another  important  series  is  that  of  the  circulars 
and  bulletins  of  the  Division  of  Agrostology,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.  These  bulletins  are 
now  out  of  print  but  the  series  can  be  consulted  in  the 
libraries  of  educational  institutions. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 

Bulletins 
Nos. 
4.  Range  Improvement  in  Arizona. 

11.  Johnson-Grass. 

12.  Stock  Ranges  of  Northwestern  Cahfornia. 

13.  Experiments  in  Range  Improvement  in  Central  Texas. 

15.  Forage  Conditions  on  the  Northern  Border  of  the  Great  Basin. 

19.  Kentucky  Blue-Grass  Seed. 

31.  Cultivated  Forage  Crops  of  the  Northwestern  States. 

38.  Forage  Conditions  and  Problems  in  Eastern  Oregon. 

57.  Methods  Used  for  Controlling  and  Reclaiming  Sand-Dunes. 

59.  Pasture,  Meadow,  and  Forage  Crops  in  Nebraska. 

65.  Reclamation  of  Cape  Cod  Sand-Dunes. 

67.  Range  Investigations  in  Arizona. 

72.  III.    Extermination  of  Johnson-Grass. 

74.  Prickly  Pear  and  Other  Cacti  as  Food  for  Stock. 

75.  Range  Management  in  the  State  of  Washington. 
82.  Grass  Lands  of  the  South  Alaska  Coast. 

84.  The  Seeds  of  the  Blue-Grasses. 

94.  Farm  Practice  with  Forage  Crops  in  Western  Oregon. 

100.  VI.    Orchard-Grass. 

111.  IV.    Forage  Crops  for  Hogs  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma. 

111.  V.    The  Culture  and  Uses  of  Brome-Grass. 

117.  Reseeding  of  Depleted  Range  and  Native  Pastures. 

118.  Peruvian  Alfalfa. 


GRASS-CROP  AREAS  89 

124.  The  Prickly  Pear  as  a  Farm  Crop. 

127.  The  Improvement  of  Mountain  Meadows. 

140.  The  Spineless  Prickly  Pears. 

169.  Variegated  Alfalfa. 

175.  History  and  Distribution  of  Sorghum. 

177.  A  Protected  Stock  Range  in  Arizona. 

179.  The  Florida  Velvet  Bean. 

197.  The  Soybean. 

203.  Importance  and  Improvement  of  the  Grain  Sorghums. 

209.  Grimm  Alfalfa. 

229.  Agricultural  Varieties  of  the  Cowpea. 

237.  Grain  Sorghum   Production   in   the  San   Antonio   Region  of 

Texas. 
253.  The  Kaoliangs:  A  New  Group  of  Grain  Sorghums. 
258.  Some  New  Alfalfa  Varieties  for  Pastures. 

Farmers'  Bulletins 

Nos. 

72.  Cattle  Ranges  of  the  Southwest. 
101.  MiUets. 
108.  Saltbushes. 
139.  Emmer. 

164.  Rape  as  a  Forage  Crop. 
174.  Broom-Corn. 
194.  Alfalfa  Seed. 

246.  Saccharine  Sorghums  for  Forage. 
248.  The  Lawn. 

260.  Seed  of  Red  Clover  and  Its  Impurities. 
271.  Forage    Crop    Practices    in    Western    Oregon    and    Western 

Washington. 
279.  Method  of  Eradicating  Johnson-Grass. 
288.  Nonsaccharine  Sorghums. 
292.  Cost  of  Filling  Silos. 
300.  Some  Important  Grasses  and  Forage  Plants  of  the  Gulf  Coast 

Region. 
312.  A  Successful  Southern  Hay  Farm. 
318.  Cowpeas. 

322.  Milo  as  a  Dry-Land  Grain  Crop. 

323.  Clover  Farming  on  Sandy  Jack-Pine  Lands  of  the  North. 
331.  Forage  Crops  for  Hogs  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma. 


90  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

339.  Alfalfa. 

361.  Meadow  Fescue. 

362.  Conditions  Affecting  Value  of  Market  Hay. 

372.  Soybeans. 

373.  Irrigation  of  Alfalfa. 

382.  The  Adulteration  of  Forage-Plant  Seeds. 

402.  Canada  Blue-Grass. 

441.  Lespedeza  or  Japan  Clover. 

448.  Better  Grain-Sorghuni  Crops. 

458.  Best  Two  Sweet  Sorghums  for  Forage. 

464.  Eradication  of  Quack-Grass. 

466.  Winter  Emmer. 

485.  Sweet  Clover. 

494.  Lawn  Soils  and  Lawns. 

495.  Alfalfa  Seed  Production. 

502.  Timothy    Production    on    Irrigated    Land    in    Northwestern 
States 

508.  Market  Hay 

509.  Forage  Crops  for  Cotton  Region. 
515.  Vetches. 

529.  Vetch-Growing  in  the  Southern  States 
550.  Crimson  Clover:  Growing  the  Crop. 
552.  Kafir  as  a  Grain  Crop. 
556.  The  Making  and  P'eeding  of  Silage. 

578.  The  Making  and  Feeding  of  Silage. 

579.  Crimson  Clover:  UtiHzation. 

Articles  in  the  Yearbooks  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 

1894.  Grasses  as  Sand-  and  Soil-Binders. 
1895    Canadian  Field  Peas. 

Forage  Conditions  of  the  Prairie  Region. 

Grasses  of  Salt  Marshes. 

1896.  Timothy  in  the  Prairie  Region. 
Cowpeas. 

1897.  Lawns  and  Lawn-Making. 
Leguminous  Forage  Crops. 

1898.  Millets. 
Sand-Binding  Grasses. 

Grass  Seed  and  Its  Impurities. 


GRASS-CROP  AREAS  91 

1898.  Forage  Plants  for  Cultivation  on  Alkali  Soils. 

1899.  Succulent  Forage  for  Farm  and  Dairy. 

1900.  Our  Native  Pasture  Plants. 

1901.  Grazing  in  Forest  Reserves. 
1906.  Range  Management. 

1908.  Search  for  New  Leguminous  Farm  Crops. 
1912.  Some  New  Grasses  for  the  South. 


PART  II 
SYSTEMATIC  AGROSTOLOGY 


CHAPTER  XI 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  ORGANS 

Morphology  treats  of  the  form  and  structure  of  organs, 
especially  as  to  their  developmental  relations.  For  exam- 
ple, morphological  study  indicates  that  a  fundamental 
organ  may  develop  into  a  foliage  leaf,  into  a  scale  or  bract, 
or  into  the  parts  of  the  flower.  In  order  to  understand  the 
natural  classification  of  plants,  it  is  first  necessary  to  be 
familiar  with  their  morphology.  To  interpret  and  use 
descriptions,  it  is  necessary  to  understand  the  terminology 
used  in  morphology.  The  subject  will  be  considered 
under  two  heads,  morphology  of  the  vegetative  organs 
and  morphology  of  the  floral  organs. 

GENERAL    CHARACTERISTICS    OF    GRASSES 

118.  Grasses  are  included  in  the  natural  botanical 
family  Poaceae  or  Gramineae. — They  are  usually  distin- 
guished by  having  long  narrow  2-ranked  blades,  clasping 
sheaths,  small  greenish  flowers  collected  in  a  compact 
or  open  inflorescence.  The  flowers  have  no  proper  peri- 
anth nor  floral  envelopes,  but  consist  of  a  pistil  and 
usually  3  stamens  inclosed  between  2  small  bracts. 
Further  details  will  be  given  under  the  appropriate 
headings. 

There  are  a  few  other  groups  of  plants  that  resemble 
grasses  in  general  appearance.  The  natural  order  Poales, 
Graminales  or  Glumiflorse,  includes  the  grasses  and  sedges 
(95) 


96  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

(Cyperaceae).  Many  sedges  have  grass-like  blades,  but 
differ  in  having  3-ranked  leaves  and  in  having  flowers 
supported  by  a  single  bract.  In  rushes  (Juncaceae)  the 
essential  organs  of  the  flowers  are  surrounded  by  a  small 
greenish  6-parted  perianth,  and  the  fruit  consists  of  a 
capsule  with  several  or  many  seeds.  A  few  plants  belong- 
ing to  the  lily  family  and  other  allied  groups  have  grass- 
like blades,  but  the  flowers  possess  a  proper  perianth  that 
is  sometimes  greenish  but  often  conspicuously  colored. 
Familiar  examples  of  plants  belonging  to  the  grass 
family  are,  blue-grass,  timothy,  redtop,  wheat,  rice  and 
other  grains,  corn,  sorghum,  sugar-cane  and  bamboos. 

119.  Gross  anatomy. — It  is  assumed  that  the  student 
is  familiar  with  the  fundamental  distinction  between  the 
primary  organs  of  the  phanerogams.  He  may  be  reminded, 
only,  that  the  plant  consists  of  shoot  and  root,  that  the 
shoot  consists  of  the  stem  and  leaves  borne  upon  it,  and 
that  the  inflorescence  consists  of  modified  shoots. 

Grasses  may  be  annual  or  perennial.  In  cooler  regions 
certain  annual  species  may  germinate  in  the  fall,  live  over 
winter  as  a  small  tuft  and  send  up  flower  stalks  the  follow- 
ing spring.    These  are  known  as  winter  annuals. 

120.  Perennial  herbaceous  species  are  mostly  of  two 
kinds.  In  the  first  kind  a  crown  is  formed  by  the  per- 
sistent bases  of  the  culms,  the  upper  portions  of  which  die 
back  each  year.  The  young  shoots  of  the  ensuing  season 
are  produced  from  buds  arising  within  the  sheaths  They 
grow  up  alongside  the  old  stems  and  together  form  a 
compact  mass.  Such  grasses  form  tufts  or  tussocks  and 
are  commonly  called  bunch-grasses.  The  orchard-grass 
is  a  familiar  example.  Some  authors  refer  to  the  shoots 
of  bunch-grasses  as  being  intravaginal. 

In  the  second  kind  of  perennial,  the  new  shoots  arise 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE   VEGETATIVE  ORGANS     97 

from  rhizomes  or  rootstocks.  These  are  modified  shoots 
that  burst  through  the  sheaths  and  creep  horizontally 
below  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Grasses  such  as  the  blue- 
grass,  with  well-developed  rhizomes,  tend  to  form  a  com- 
pact sod.  The  young  shoots  or  innovations  of  such  grasses 
are  sometimes  referred  to  as  extra  vaginal.  The  various 
forms  assumed  by  rhizomes  will  be  discussed  under  the 
subject  of  the  stem. 

Besides  these  two  chief  kinds  of  perennial  grasses, 
there  are  those  (such  as  the  buffalo -grass)  that  produce 
stolons  by  which  a  sod  is  formed.  Still  another  method  of 
persisting  through  unfavorable  seasons  is  found  in  many 
grasses  growing  in  the  water  or  mud.  The  lower  prostrate 
or  decumbent  portion  branches  freely  and  persists  while 
the  upper  portion  dies  back.  The  older  portion  dies  sooner 
or  later  so  that  the  original  base  of  the  plant  disappears 
and  one  finds  only  a  tangled  mass  of  creeping  and  root- 
ing stems. 

The  stems  of  grasses  vary  in  height  from  an  inch  or 
less  to  several  feet  in  herbaceous  species.  Some  of  the 
larger  bamboos  arise  to  the  height  of  over  100  feet  and 
may  be  a  foot  in  diameter.  Certain  climbing  species 
clamber  up  through  the  branches  of  trees  to  the  height 
of  30  feet  or  more. 

121.  Distribution. — Grasses  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  world  where  there  is  sufficient  soil  to  permit  growth. 
They  are  found  from  the  tropics  to  the  arctic  regions, 
from  sea-level  up  to  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow.  They 
are  found  in  woods,  plain,  swamp  and  desert,  on  the  floor 
of  the  deepest  forest,  on  the  sandy  seashore,  in  moist 
gorges  and  on  rocky  cliffs.  In  the  main,  however,  grasses 
love  sunlight,  and  are  found  in  greatest  abundance  in 
open  land  such  as  prairies  and  pine  barrens.  In  mangrove 
G 


98  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

swamps  grasses  are  rare  and  in  thick  forest  only  a  few 
Ijroad-bladed  shade-loving  species  are  found. 

The  species  of  grasses  are  frequently  gregarious,  form- 
ing large  masses  more  or  less  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
plants.  Familiar  examples  are  the  large  areas  of  Indian 
rice  and  of  Phragmites  in  swamps,  and  the  zones  of 
Hornalocenchrus  oryzoides  around  ponds.  On  prairies  and 
plains,  grasses  are  usually  the  dominant  vegetation,  though 
the  species  may  mingle  more  than  in  the  swamp  plants 
mentioned  above.  During  the  flowering  period,  a  particu- 
lar species  may  appear  to  the  casual  observer  to  be  the 
only  species  present,  but  close  examination  usually  proves 
the  presence  of  various  other  species,  some  of  which  may  in 
their  turn  appear  dominant  at  another  period. 

THE   ROOT  AND   STEM 

122.  The  roots  of  grasses  are  fibrous.  They  are  usually 
found  at  the  base  of  the  plant,  but  in  decumbent  or  pros- 
trate stems  they  may  be  produced  at  the  nodes.  Support- 
ing or  prop  roots  are  sometimes  produced  in  erect  stems 
at  nodes  above  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  in  Indian  corn. 
Underground  stems  which  may  have  the  appearance  of 
roots  will  be  discussed  in  another  paragraph. 

123.  The  stem  of  grasses,  known  as  the  culm,  is  made 
up  of  a  series  of  nodes  and  internodes.  The  nodes  are  the 
more  or  less  swollen  joints  at  which  the  leaves  originate. 
The  internodes  when  young  are  solid,  that  is,  filled  with 
pith,  but  at  maturity  the  pith  usually  disappears  leaving 
the  culm  in  the  form  of  a  tube  with  solid  partitions  at  the 
nodes.  The  wheat  straw  is  a  familiar  example  of  this 
structure.  In  some  grasses,  such  as  the  corn  and  sorghum, 
the  internodes  retain  the  pithy  interior. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE   VEGETATIVE  ORGANS       99 

The  nodes  are  capable  of  growth  after  the  maturity 
of  the  internodes.  By  virtue  of  this  character  the  culm  is 
able  to  change  its  direction  by  bending  at  the  nodes,  the 
latter  increasing  in  length  on  the  outer  side.  This  tendency 
may  be  observed  in  decumbent  culms,  the  terminal  por- 
tion remaining  erect  while  the  basal  portion  may  become 
prostrate.  In  such  cases  the  nodes  first  elongate  on  the 
under  side  and  later  on  the  upper  side  as  the  successive 
internodes  become  horizontal.  The  node  is  usually  indi- 
cated externally  by  a  more  or  less  well-marked  zone 
showing  a  difference  in  color,  texture  or  pubescence.  The 
swelling  often  present  near  the  node  is  a  part  of  the 
sheath  and  will  be  described  in  connection  with  that 
organ. 

In  young  shoots,  the  leaves  grow  at  first  much  faster 
than  the  internodes,  so  that  the  terminal  portion  or  bud 
consists  of  several  sheaths  fairly  well  developed,  one  within 
the  other,  while  the  corresponding  internodes  are  very 
short.  Later  these  internodes  elongate  rapidly,  separating 
the  leaves.  By  this  means  the  youngest  portion  of  the 
shoot  is  always  well  protected  by  the  surrounding 
sheaths. 

The  culms  are  usually  cylindrical  or  nearly  so,  but  may 
be  distinctly  flattened.  They  are  never  3-angled  as  in 
sedges.  The  mature  culm  in  proportion  to  its  weight  has 
great  strength,  especially  to  resist  bending.  This  condi- 
tion is  aided  by  the  tubular  shape  and  by  the  hard  tissue 
of  the  walls.  In  addition  to  the  sclerenchyma  fibers,  so 
abundantly  produced  as  to  form  a  solid  ring  of  tissue  with 
the  vascular  bundles,  there  is  usually  deposited  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  silica. 

124.  Duration. — The  culms  of  most  grasses  are  herba- 
ceous and  die  down  at  least  to  the  surface  of  the  soil.    In 


100  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

bamboos  and  a  few  other  groups  (such  as  Lasiacis  and 
Arundo)  the  culms  are  woody  and  persist  many  years. 
Transitional  forms  are  not  uncommon,  especially  in  desert 
regions  where  the  base  of  the  culms  becomes  perennial, 
the  new  shoots  arising  from  this  more  or  less  elongated 
and  woody  portion. 

125.  Stems  modified  for  prbpagation. — The  usual 
form  of  propagating  stem  is  the  rhizome  or  rootstock 
(Fig.  58).  Rhizomes  are  creeping  underground  stems 
that  may  be  distinguished  from  roots  by  the  presence 
of  reduced  leaves  in  the  form  of  scales.  The  terminal  bud 
is  hard  and  sharp  so  that  the  rhizome  is  able  to  force  its 
way  through  the  soil.  Rhizomes  vary  greatly  in  size  and 
consistency,  being  slender  or  almost  thread-like  in  some 
species  and  thick  and  firm  in  others,  but  are  rarely  suc- 
culent enough  to  be  called  fleshy.  From  the  rhizomes  are 
sent  up  the  vertical  shoots,  sometimes  a  single  shoot  the 
following  season,  sometimes  several  during  the  same 
season. 

In  sandy  soil,  especially  on  sand-dunes,  the  system  of 
rhizomes  reaches  its  greatest  development.  Beach-grass 
(Ammophila)  and  species  of  Spartina  (such  as  S.  juncea) 
produce  a  branching  network,  a  single  element  of  which 
may  be  many  feet  in  length.  Under  favorable  circum- 
stances of  isolation,  a  vigorous  rhizome  may  be  traced  a 
long  distance  by  the  line  of  vertical  shoots  produced. 
Swamp-grasses  are  usually  provided  with  a  well-developed 
rhizome  system,  by  which  they  may  form  a  layer  over 
soft  mud  or  even  upon  the  surface  of  water. 

Grasses  that  grow  in  ordinary  alluvial  soil  and  that 
produce  copious  slender  rhizomes  form  a  firm  sod  and  are 
useful  for  lawns. 

Examples:  Blue-grass  and  Bermuda-grass. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  ORGANS     101 

Between  species  with  well-marked  rhizomes  such  as 
described  above  and  species  in  which  the  rhizomes  are 
absent  there  are  many  transitions.  The  rhizomes  may  be 
short  and  thick  with  the  scales  close  together,  the  plants 
forming  loose  tufts.  Or  the  rhizomes  may  be  slender  but 
short  and  ascending,  the  plants  also  forming  loose  tufts. 
In  certain  species,  usually  classed  as  bunch-grasses,  in 
which  the  tuft  grows  by  accretions  at  the  outer  edge,  the 
new  shoots  must  bend  outward  and  upward  to  reach  the 
light.  In  large  tufts  the  outer  shoots  have  decumbent 
bases  which  may  simulate  short  rhizomes.  In  some 
cases,  especially  in  desert  regions,  such  tufts  may  assume 
the  form  of  fairy  rings,  d>ing  out  at  the  center  and  expand- 
ing at  the  circumference,  until  finally  the  living  zone 
breaks  up  into  isolated  tufts,  each  to  become  a  new  center 
of  growth. 

126.  Stolons. — When  the  modified  propagating  stems 
are  produced  above  the  surface  of  the  soil  they  are  called 
stolons  or  runners.  They  differ  also  from  rhizomes  in  that 
they  bear  foliage-leaves  instead  of  scales,  although  these 
leaves  are  usually  different  in  size  or  shape  from  those 
produced  upon  the  foliage-shoots.  Stolons  are  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  shoots  of  creeping  prostrate  or  decumbent 
plants  in  that  they  are  modified  creeping  stems,  that 
is,  they  differ  from  the  ordinary  erect  or  ascending  shoots 
of  the  same  plant  and  have  the  distinct  function  of 
propagation.  The  buffalo-grass  produces  stolons  so  abun- 
dantly that  the  plant  forms  a  firm  sod  upon  large  areas  of 
the  Great  Plains  (Fig.  48).  It  was  from  such  sod  that 
pioneers  in  this  region  made  their  sod  houses.  In  the 
tropics  stolon-producing  species  are  more  numerous  than 
in  the  cooler  regions.  Para-grass,  when  growing  in  new 
soil,  produces  vigorous  stolons  ^  much  as  20  feet  long. 


102  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

The  common  carpet-grass  of  our  southern  states  produces 
strong  stolons  which,  on  overhanging  banks  or  in  other 
favorable  situations,  may  reach  a  length  of  several  feet. 
Some  species  produce  rhizomes  or  stolons  according  to 
the  conditions  under  which  they  are  growing.  Bermuda- 
grass  forms  strong  rhizomes  several  inches  below  the  sur- 
face in  cultivated  soil  but  in  hard  uncultivated  soil  pro- 
duces stolons,  and  not  infrequently  both  may  be  found 
in  the  same  mass  of  sod. 

127.  Conns. — Another  and  rarer  form  of  modified 
underground  stem  is  the  corm.  This  is  a  hard  globular 
thickening  at  the  base  of  the  plant.  In  Panicum  bulbosum, 
a  grass  found  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  New  Mexico 
and  Arizona,  these  corms  are  well  marked,  sometimes  as 
much  as  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  may  occur  in  groups  of 
several  attached  in  one  mass.  Rudimentary  corms  are 
found  at  the  base  of  the  stems  of  timothy,  Cinna  and 
many  species  of  Melica.  A  variety  of  the  tall  oat-grass 
produces  corms  in  moniliform  strings.  The  corms  are 
produced  by  the  thickening  of  a  single  internode.  If 
there  is  more  than  one  corm  on  the  same  shoot  the  con- 
striction between  is  the  node.  In  Melica  the  thickening 
is  greatest  at  the  base  of  the  internode  resulting  in  a  flask- 
shaped  corm.  Buds  arise  not  on  the  corms  but  at  the  con- 
strictions, as  these  are  the  nodes.  The  masses  of  corms 
mentioned  as  being  found  in  Panicum  bulbosum  include 
together  with  the  living  corms  persistent  old  corms  at 
the  base  of  the  stems  of  previous  years'  growth,  these 
being  connected  by  short  rhizomes. 

128.  Artificial  propagation  by  means  of  stems. — Sugar- 
cane is  propagated  by  planting  pieces  of  the  stems  or  canes, 
the  buds  at  the  nodes  developing  into  shoots.  Para-grass 
and  Bermuda-grass  are  propagated  by  planting  pieces  of 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  ORGANS     103 

the  stolons  or  rhizomes.  A  common  method  in  case  of  the 
latter  grass  is  to  cut  sod  into  small  pieces  by  means  of  an 
ax  or  a  feed-cutter  and  to  drop  these  upon  prepared  ground, 
forcing  them  in  by  pressure  of  the  foot.  Or,  so  readily  do 
these  pieces  of  stems  grow,  they  may  be  sown  broadcast 
and  harrowed  in  or  pressed  in  with  a  roller. 

THE    LEA.F 

129.  The  leaf  is  a  lateral  organ  of  the  stem  borne 
singly  at  the  nodes.  A  normally  developed  foliage-leaf 
consists  of  two  parts,  the  sheath  and  the  blade.  The 
sheath  envelopes  the  culm  above  the  node;  the  blade  is 
the  long  narrow  flat  portion  to  which  the  name  leaf  is 
often  applied.  At  the  junction  of  the  sheath  and  blade 
is  found  an  appendage  called  the  ligule. 

Leaves  are  arranged  on  the  culm  alternately,  in  two 
ranks  or  rows.  That  is,  the  blade  of  a  leaf  at  one  node  is 
on  the  side  opposite  the  one  below,  while  the  third  blade 
is  above  the  first  and  on  the  same  side  of  the  culm.  This 
universal  arrangement,  easy  to  observe  in  corn,  is  often 
obscured  by  the  twisting  of  the  culm  or  sheaths,  by  which 
the  leaves  may  appear  to  be  more  or  less  in  one  rank  or 
to  be  spirally  arranged. 

When  the  internodes  of  a  shoot  have  failed  to  elongate 
so  that  the  leaves  remain  in  a  tuft  or  fascicle,  the  actual 
distichous  arrangement  of  the  leaves  is  distorted  by  the 
mutual  pressure  of  these  organs,  by  which  they  may 
appear  to  radiate  in  all  directions. 

Leaves  may  be  reduced  to  scales  or  bracts.  Reduced 
leaves  that  appear  on  a  shoot  below  the  foliage-leaves  are 
called  scales.  Those  that  appear  above  the  foliage-leaves 
are  called  bracts. 


104  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

130.  Leaf-base  and  blade. — As  regards  development, 
the  leaves  of  flowering  plants  consist  of  two  portions — ■ 
the  leaf-base  and  the  blade.  The  leaf-base  is  prominent 
in  the  early  development  of  the  organ,  but  generally 
includes  only  a  small  portion  of  the  mature  leaf.  In  the 
leaves  of  common  deciduous  forest  trees,  the  swollen 
portion  at  the  base  of  the  petiole  represents  the  leaf-base. 
In  reduced  leaves,  the  leaf-base  often  includes  a  relatively 
greater  portion  or  may  even  be  the  only  portion  developed. 
In  grasses,  the  sheath  represents  the  leaf-base.  In  scales 
and  bracts,  the  blades  have  failed  to  develop  or  consist 
of  a  mere  tip  or  point. 

131.  The  prophyllum. — At  the  point  where  a  branch 
shoot  originates  from  a  main  shoot,  there  is  produced  on 
the  side  next  to  the  parent  shoot  a  2-keeled  organ  called 
the  prophyllum.  Through  pressure  the  back  of  the 
prophyllum  between  the  keels  is  concave  against  the 
parent  shoot,  while  the  two  lateral  portions,  outside  the 
keels,  bend  forward  clasping  the  new  shoot.  At  first  the 
prophyllum  completely  covers  the  young  shoot  or  bud, 
but  later  is  spread  or  opened  as  the  shoot  develops. 

The  various  subdivisions  of  the  leaf  will  now  be  dis- 
cussed more  in  detail. 

132.  The  sheath  is  the  lower  portion  of  the  leaf  that 
encircles  the  culm  above  the  node  from  which  it  arises. 
From  the  developmental  standpoint  it  represents  the 
leaf-base.  The  sheath  is  usually  open  from  the  base  on  the 
side  opposite  the  blade,  the  right  and  left  margins  of  suc- 
cessive sheaths  overlapping  alternately. 

The  sheath  usually  fits  close  to  the  stem  but  may  be 
loose  or  inflated,  especially  the  uppermost.  The  old  sheaths 
at  the  base  of  the  shoots  may  persist  in  perennial  grasses 
and  assume  a  characteristic  appearance. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  ORGANS      105 

The  uppermost  sheath  of  Sporobolus  cryptandrus  (Terr.)  Gray 
and  allied  species  becomes  inflated  and  spathe-like,  more  or  less 
inclosing  the  inflorescence.  The  spathe-like  sheaths  are  conspicuous 
in  Andropogon  Elliottii  Chapm.  Certain  water-grasses,  notably  Pas- 
palum  repens  Berg.,  have  inflated  sheaths  that  act  as  floats  to  sus- 
tain the  stems  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  In  some  grasses,  especi- 
ally those  of  dry  regions,  the  dead  sheaths  persist  as  separated  fibers 
or  as  a  network  of  fibers.  In  other  species  such  as  Muhlenbergia 
gracilis  (H.  B.  K.)  Kunth  and  more  conspicuously  in  M.  straminea 
Hitchc,  the  sheaths  become  flat  and  ribbon-hke  and  persist  as  a 
curly  mass  resembhng  shavings,  simulating  old  blades. 

In  some  species  the  sheaths  are  united  by  the  margins 
to  form  a  tube  nearly  or  quite  to  the  top. 

Examples:  Bromus,  Danthonia,  Festuca,  Mehca,  Panicularia. 

Though  the  sheaths  normally  encircle  the  culm,  a 
spreading  branch  may  pull  the  subtending  sheath  away 
from  the  culm,  in  which  case  the  sheath  usually  encircles 
the  branch. 

133.  Sheath  nodes. — Many  grasses  present  at  the 
base  of  the  sheath  a  distinct  swelling  which  at  first  sight 
appears  to  be  the  node  of  the  culm.  If  this  portion  of  the 
stem  is  split  open  longitudinally  it  is  readily  seen  that 
the  prominent  swelling  is  on  the  sheath  and  that  the  stem 
node  is  just  below  as  will  be  indicated  by  the  cross  parti- 
tion. The  sheath-node  is  often  differentiated  also  by  its 
color  or  pubescence. 

134.  The  collar. — At  the  junction  of  the  sheath  and 
blade  there  is  in  nearly  all  grasses  a  distinct  line  of  demar- 
kation.  On  the  inside  is  the  ligule  (Par.  135).  On  the  out- 
side or  back  is  a  line,  zone  or  ridge  which  is  differentiated 
in  color,  texture,  markings  or  pubescence.  This  zone  is 
called  the  collar. 

135.  The  ligule  is  an  appendage  on  the  inside  of  a 


106  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

grass  leaf  at  the  junction  of  the  sheath  and  blade.  The 
usual  form  of  the  ligule  is  a  membrane  extending  across 
the  top  of  the  sheath  at  first  tightly  clasping  the  culm,  the 
membrane  being  longest  in  the  middle  portion.  The  shape 
and  appearance  of  the  ligule  are  characteristic  of  each 
species  and  are  often  used  for  taxonomic  purposes. 

The  ligule  may  be  truncate  or  even  somewhat  concave  on  the 
upper  margin.  It  is  nerveless  but  may  be  1-keeled  (Dactylis  glom- 
erata)  or  apparently  2-keeled  by  the  extension  upward  of  the  base 
of  the  blade  on  each  side.  Not  infrequently  the  ligular  tissue  extends 
down  the  margins  of  the  sheath.  Sometimes  the  ligule  is  lacerate  or 
ciliate,  or  may  appear  as  a  row  of  hairs  (Panicum  Lindheimeri  Nash 
and  its  allies) .  The  ligule  is  obsolete  in  some  species  {Panicum  sphsero- 
carpon  Ell.)  and  entirely  absent  in  others  (Echinochloa  crus- 
galli  (L.)  Beauv.)  In  Anthochloa  colusana  (Davy)  Scribn.  there  is 
no  differentiation  into  sheath  and  blade,  hence  no  collar  or  ligule. 
The  exact  morphology  of  these  leaves  has  not  been  investigated.  It 
may  be  the  sheath  that  is  obsolete. 

136.  The  blade  is  the  usually  flat  part  of  the  leaf 
beyond  the  sheath  and  is  the  chief  foliage  organ  of  the 
plant.  In  most  grasses  the  blade  is  many  times  longer 
than  wide  but  in  many  tropical  species  and  in  a  few  of  the 
temperate  regions  it  is  short  and  broad,  from  oval  to 
lanceolate  in  outline  (see  Fig.  29).  Grasses  with  this  kind 
of  blade  are  mostly  confined  to  the  damp  forest  regions 
of  the  tropics. 

In  such  grasses  the  shoots  are  often  strongly  dorsiventral,  the 
blades  being  turned  into  the  plane  of  the  culm,  and  the  shoots 
usually  prostrate,  procumbent  or  ascending.  The  genera  OpHsmenus, 
Ichnanthus,  Senites,  Pharus  and  many  species  of  Paniciun  (as  P. 
trichoides)  furnish  familiar  examples  of  species  with  broad  short 
blades  that  are  found  on  the  floor  of  tropical  forests.  These  blades 
often  resemble  those  of  other  families  of  plants,  especially  Commely- 
nacese.    The  bamboos  and  the  bamboo-panicums  (Lasiacis)  usually 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  ORGANS      107 

have  broad,  comparatively  short  blades.  In  some  cases  the  broad 
blades  are  unsymmetrical,  one  side  being  much  wider  than  the 
other.   These  oblique  blades  are  common  in  Olyrese. 

In  contrast  to  the  broad  surface  mentioned  above,  the 
blades  may  be  very  narrow,  when  they  are  said  to  be 
filiform  or  capillary.  Often  the  blades  are  rolled,  thus 
appearing  much  narrower  than  they  are  when  unrolled. 

Convolute  blades  are  those  in  which  one  margin  is  roUed  over 
the  other.  Involute  blades  are  those  in  which  both  margins  are 
roUed  inward  toward  the  center,  the  upper  surface  being  inside. 
Revolute  blades  are  those  in  which  the  margins  are  rolled  outward, 
the  lower  surface  being  inside.  Conduplicate  blades  are  folded  so 
that  the  upper  surface  of  the  two  halves  come  in  contact  as  in  Poa 
Fendleriana  and  its  allies.  In  common  blue-grass  one  may  observe 
all  gradations  between  fiat  and  completely  conduplicate  blades. 
Certain  blades  that  appear  to  be  rolled  may  be  thickened  into  a 
slender  terete  or  cylindrical  form,  the  upper  surface  being  rci^re- 
sented  by  a  mere  groove  (forms  of  Festuca  ovina,  Andropogon 
Urbanianus) . 

Petiole. — In  some  leaves  especially  those  of  shade 
grasses  mentioned  above,  there  is  a  more  or  less  well- 
marked  petiole  at  the  base  of  the  blade. 

Examples:  Orthoclada,  Senites,  Ichnanthus,  many  bamboos. 

137.  Nervation. — The  vascular  system  of  the  grass 
blade  consists  of  a  strong  main  central  axis,  the  midrib, 
and  few  to  several  smaller  bundles  called  nerves,  on  each 
side  parallel  to  the  midrib.  These  nerves  are  continua- 
tions of  corresponding  nerves  in  the  sheaths  and  they  can 
usually  be  traced  with  the  naked  eye  through  the  region 
of  the  collar.  The  anastomosing  bundles,  or  cross-veins, 
are  usually  indistinguishable  to  the  unaided  eye.  The 
broad  blades  of  shade  grasses  (except  Pharus  and  Lep- 


108  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

taspis)  present  arcuate  nerves  diverging  at  the  base  and 
converging  at  the  apex,  with  numerous  often  conspicuous 
cross-veins,  thus  simulating  the  so-called  netted-veined 
blades  of  dicotyledons. 

Besides  the  various  genera  already  mentioned  as  having  broad 
blades  are  the  following  which  also  present  well-marked  cross- veins: 
Olyrese,  Centhotheca,  Senites,  Orthoclada,  Pariana,  many  bamboos, 
and  a  few  other  genera.  Pharus  differs  in  having  straight  parallel 
lateral  nerves  that  diverge  from  the  midrib  nearly  throughout  its 
length  and  join  with  a  strong  marginal  nerve,  instead  of  converging 
at  the  apex  (Fig.  29).  Leptaspis  resembles  Pharus,  but  Strepto- 
cha>ta  is  intermediate. 

138.  Auricles. — Some  grasses  bear,  one  on  either  side  at 
the  base  of  the  blade,  appendages  known  as  auricles. 
These  auricles  are  characteristic  of  the  tribe  Hordese  and 
are  found  in  certain  species  of  other  tribes. 

Wheat,  rye  and  barley  show  prominent  auricles.  Rice  and 
Festuca  elatior  and  its  alhes  are  examples  outside  the  Hordeae.  A 
very  unusual  development  of  the  blade  is  shown  in  Phyllorachis 
sagittata  Trim,  and  Spodiopogon  sagittifolius  Rendle.  The  base  of 
the  blade  is  extended  into  a  long  lobe  on  either  side  of  the  short 
petiole. 

139.  Roll-leaves. — In  a  preceding  paragraph  (Par, 
136),  casual  mention  was  made  of  blades  in  which,  by 
rolling  in  various  ways,  the  exposed  surface  is  reduced. 
This  rolling  of  the  blade  is  a  xerophytic  character  and 
tends,  by  reduction  of  the  evaporating  surface,  to  lessen 
the  loss  of  moisture.  Such  reduction  of  surface  is  charac- 
teristic of  grasses  of  plains  and  desert  regions,  of  sandy  soil, 
especially  along  the  seacoast,  and  of  saline  marshes.  In 
some  cases  the  blades  are  permanently  rolled,  in  other 
cases  they  are  flat  under  favorable  conditions  of  atmos- 
pheric   moisture    but    readily    roll    when    the    moisture 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  ORGANS      109 

decreases.  This  rolling  is  a  normal  protective  process  and 
should  not  be  confused  with  wilting.  The  blades  of  roll- 
leaves  are  marked  on  one  or  both  surfaces  with  parallel 
channels  and  ridges,  the  latter  being  the  nerves.  The 
tissues  of  the  ridges  are  firm  and  resistant  while  the  cells 
of  the  channels  are  larger  and  thin-walled.  These  large 
cells,  called  bulliform  cells,  readily  give  off  moisture. 
When  the  air  is  moist  they  remain  turgescent,  thus  push- 
ing the  ridges  apart  and  holding  the  surface  flat  or  at 
least  partly  open.  As  the  air  grows  drier  the  bulliform 
cells  become  flaccid  and  the  blade  closes  or  rolls.  To 
further  aid  the  blades  of  xerophytic  grasses  to  resist  too 
great  a  loss  of  water,  the  stomata  are  usually  arranged 
along  the  sides  of  the  channels  and  are  not  exposed  when 
the  blade  rolls. 

Examples  of  roll-leaves  are  forms  of  Festuca  ovina  and  species  of 
Stipa  and  Spartina. 

SCALES    AND    BRACTS 

140.  Scales  are  the  reduced  leaves  found  upon  shoots 
below  the  foliage-leaves.  They  may  be  observed  near 
the  base  of  shoots  of  all  perennial  grasses,  occupying  gen- 
erally the  portion  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  often 
a  portion  for  a  short  distance  above  the  soil.  These  scales, 
by  overlapping  above  the  growing  point  as  a  bud,  protect 
the  shoot  as  it  pushes  through  the  ground.  Usually  there 
is  a  gradual  transition  from  scales  to  foliage-leaves,  but 
sometimes  the  change  is  abrupt.  In  large  grasses  such  as 
Gynerium  sagittatum,  the  portion  of  the  culm  occupied  by 
scales  is  much  greater  and  may  extend  several  feet  above 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  Bamboos,  especially  the  vigorous 
shoots  of  the  large  species,  furnish  excellent  examples  of 


no  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

scales.  These  throw  up  a  culm  several  inches  in  thickness, 
covered  with  large  scales,  and  grow  many  feet  in  height 
before  they  develop  foliage-branches.  In  perennial 
stemmed  bamboos  may  be  observed  scales  also  upon  the 
lower  portion  of  branches.  These  scales  often  show  transi- 
tions to  foliage-leaves,  the  upper  bearing  rudimentary 
blades. 

Scales  are  always  produced  upon  rhizomes.  Their 
chief  function  appears  to  be  that  of  protection  to  the 
growing  point  as  the  rhizome  is  forced  through  the  soil. 
The  scales  develop  rapidly  in  the  form  of  a  bud  at  the  end, 
overlapping  and  sharp-pointed.  The  terminal  portion 
of  some  vigorous  rhizomes  is  as  hard  as  wood  and  as  sharp 
as.  an  awl.  By  the  elongation  of  the  internodes,  the  scales 
behind  the  growing  point  are  separated  and  may  become 
lacerated  or  otherwise  lose  their  original  shape. 

141.  Bracts  are  reduced  leaves  that  are  borne  on  shoots 
above  the  foliage-leaves.  They  may  be  discussed  under 
two  heads,  those  that  are  in  or  near  the  inflorescence, 
and  those  that  are  specially  modified  in  the  spikelet.  The 
latter  will  be  considered  in  a  future  paragraph  dealing 
with  the  spikelet. 

Among  flowering  plants  in  general,  bracts  are  usually 
found  subtending  each  branch  of  the  inflorescence  down 
to  the  individual  flower.  In  grasses  these  bracts  are  rarely 
present.  In  large  panicles,  as  in  some  species  of  Bromus, 
the  lower  branches  may  be  subtended  by  small  bracts  or 
there  is  at  least  a  ridge  representing  a  bract.  Sheathing 
bracts  are  found  in  various  genera,  especially  among 
Andropogoneae,  at  the  base  of  the  entire  inflorescence  or 
of  certain  portions  of  it.  In  some  grasses,  the  uppermost 
leaf  below  the  inflorescence  may  have  a  much-reduced 
blade,  for  example  many  species  of  Poa,  but  such  leaves 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  VEGETATIVE  ORGANS      111 

are  usually  classed  with  the  foliage-leaves  rather  than  with 
bracts.  A  peculiarly  specialized  bract  is  found  at  the  base 
of  the  individual  inflorescence  of  Job's  tears  (Par.  203). 
It  is  urn-shaped,  bony,  and  incloses  the  pistillate  inflores- 
cence. At  maturity  it  breaks  away  as  a  bead-like 
1-seeded  fruit. 


CHAPTER    XII 

MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  FLORAL  ORGANS 

The  floral  organs  of  phanerogams  are  known  to  be 
highly  differentiated  or  specialized  shoots,  the  receptacle 
representing  a  stem,  and  the  stamens  and  pistils  repre- 
senting greatly  modified  leaves.  In  the  grasses  the 
flowers  are  nearly  always  devoid  of  floral  envelopes,  the 
calyx  and  corolla  being  absent  or  represented  only  by  the 
lodicules.  The  flower  then  is  reduced  to  the  essential 
organs,  the  stamens  and  pistil,  the  protection  usually 
afforded  by  the  floral  envelopes  being  here  afforded 
by  bracts. 

THE    INFLORESCENCE    OR    FLOWER-CLUSTER 

142.  The  flowers  of  grasses  are  usually  segregated 
upon  distinct  shoots  that  are  easily  distinguished  from  the 
foliage-shoots  or  the  foliage  portion  of  a  shoot.  These 
aggregations  of  flowers  constitute  the  inflorescence. 

An  inflorescence  is  always  terminal  upon  the  shoot,  and 
commonly  these  shoots  are  the  main  foliage-shoots  of  the 
plant,  as  in  wheat,  blue-grass,  timothy  and  sorghum.  In 
addition  to  the  inflorescence  terminating  the  main  culm 
and  leafy  branches,  others  may  arise  from  the  axils  of  the 
leaves.  Such  lateral  inflorescences  are,  of  course,  terminal 
upon  lateral  branches,  but  since  such  branches  bear  no 
foliage-leaves  the  inflorescences  are  said  to  be  lateral  or 
axillary.  In  some  grasses  such  as  bamboos,  bamboo- 
panicums,  and  less  commonly  in  herbaceous  genera,  the 
(112) 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE  FLORAL  ORGANS        113 

culms  produce  foliage-branches  some  or  all  of  which  may 
end  in  an  inflorescence. 

The  unit  of  the  inflorescence  is  the  spikelet,  which 
consists  of  one  or  more  flowers  with  the  subtending  floral 
bracts.  The  common  forms  of  inflorescence  are  the  spike, 
the  raceme  and  the  panicle. 

143.  Kinds  of  inflorescence. — The  spike. — The  spike- 
lets  are  sessile  along  an  elongated  axis.  Familiar  examples 
of  this  form  are  the  members  of  the  tribe  Hordeae,  as 
wheat  and  rye  (Figs.  57-62). 

The  raceme. — The  spikelets  are  pediceled  and  borne 
along  an  elongated  axis.  Simple  forms  of  meadow  fescue 
and  sheep's  fescue  show  racemes.  The  individual  inflo- 
rescence of  Paspalum  is  apparently  a  spike,  but  really  a 
spike-like  raceme. 

The  'panicle. — The  spikelets  are  pediceled  and  the 
inflorescence  is  repeatedly  branched.  The  oat-  and  blue- 
grass  are  familiar  examples  (Fig.  54). 

Mixed  inflorescences. — True  spikes,  except  in  the  Hor- 
deae, are  rare,  as  is  also  the  simple  raceme.  An  inflores- 
cence that  is  apparently  a  spike  often  shows  that  the 
spikelets  are  not  sessile  but  more  or  less  pediceled.  Such 
an  inflorescence  is  properly  a  spike-hke  raceme.  Similarly 
a  panicle  may  be  so  contracted  that  the  pedicels  and  short 
branches  are  hidden  and  the  inflorescence  appears  to  be 
a  spike,  but  in  precise  language  should  be  called  a  spike- 
like panicle  (Fig.  38). 

The  component  parts  of  the  inflorescences  of  the  genera  Pas- 
palum and  Syntherisma  (e.g.,  crab-grass)  are  spike-like  racemes. 
The  so-caUed  spikes  or  heads  of  timothy  and  canary-grass  are  spike- 
hke  panicles. 

In  the  genus  Andropogon  what  appears  to  be  a  spike  consists 
of  a  jointed  axis,  each  joint  bearing  a  pair  of  spikelets,  one  sessile 


114  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

the  other  pediccled.    The  inflorescence  is  therefore  generally  re- 
ferred to  as  a  raceme  or  as  composed  of  racemes  (Fig.  16). 

Simple  racemes  with  elongated  pedicels  are  not  common. 
Simple  panicles  in  which  the  spikelets  are  racemosely  arranged 
above  and  more  or  less  paniculate  below  are  frequent.  The  meadow 
fescue  and  other  fescue  grasses  usually  bear  this  kind  of  an  inflor- 
escence. 

Compound  inflorescence. — This  term  has  received  no 
very  precise  appHcation.  It  is  usually  applied  to  a  large 
inflorescence  made  up  of  numerous  smaller  inflorescences, 
especially  if  the  latter  have  their  distinctness  emphasized 
by  sheathing  bracts  as  in  Cymbopogon  Nardus  and  many 
other  Andropogoneae. 

144.  Unisexual  inflorescences. — The  spikelets  that 
make  up  an  inflorescence  are  usually  alike,  and  consist 
of  perfect  flowers.  But  sometimes  the  spikelets  are  uni- 
sexual, the  male  and  female  spikelets  being  in  distinct 
and  usually  dissimilar  inflorescences.  There  are  a  few 
dioecious  genera  such  as  Spinifex,  Bulbilis,  Scleropogon, 
Gynerium  and  Jouvea.  In  these  the  inflorescence  of  the 
staminate  plants  is  very  different  in  appearance  from  that 
of  the  pistillate  plants.  Sometimes  the  difference  is  so 
great  that  the  different  forms  might  easily  be  considered 
by  the  casual  observer  to  belong  to  distinct  species  or 
even  to  distinct  genera.  There  are  cases  where  the  two 
forms  have  been  described  by  botanists  as  belonging  to 
distinct  genera.  In  the  common  buffalo-grass  of  the 
plains  the  staminate  inflorescence  consists  of  1  to  3  one- 
sided spikes  raised  on  a  peduncle  a  few  inches  long  (Fig. 
48),  while  the  pistillate  inflorescence  is  hidden  among  the 
foliage  close  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  (Fig.  49).  Some- 
times (e.g.  Distichlis)  the  staminate  and  pistillate  inflores- 
cences are  similar  though  not  alike  (Fig.  52), 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE  FLORAL  ORGANS         115 

Fournier  described  the  genus  Jouvea  from  pistillate  specimens. 
Staminate  plants  of  the  same  species  (/.  straminca  Fourn.)  he  re- 
ferred to  Brizopyrum.  The  staminate  specimens  of  Jouvea  pilosa 
(Presl)  Scribn.  were  first  described  under  Brizopyrum.  The  stam- 
inate plants  of  Bulbilis  dactyloides  were  first  described  under  Sesleria. 

145.  Monoecious  genera,  in  which  the  staminate  and 
pistillate  flowers  are  borne  in  distinct  and  dissimilar  por- 
tions of  the  inflorescence,  are  not  common.  These  include 
Tripsacum,  Olyra,  Zizania,  and  a  few  related  genera.  In 
Tripsacum  the  staminate  flowers  occupy  the  terminal 
portion  of  the  spikes.  In  Olyra  and  Zizania  (Fig.  31)  the 
staminate  flowers  are  in  the  lower  part  of  a  panicle.  In  a 
very  few  genera,  the  staminate  and  pistillate  inflores- 
cences occupy  different  parts  of  the  same  plant.  Zea  and 
Euchlsena  belong  to  this  group.  The  tassel  of  the  corn  is 
the  staminate  inflorescence;  the  ear  is  the  pistillate 
inflorescence.  Not  a  few  grasses,  as  many  Andropogonese, 
produce  unisexual  spikelets  that  are  interspersed  with 
perfect  spikelets,  usually  in  some  definite  relation,  but  all 
in  the  same  inflorescence  (Fig.  16). 

146.  The  axis  of  inflorescence. — The  usual  form  is 
slender  and  cylindrical,  but  it  may  take  on  a  variety  of 
other  shapes.  In  the  spike  of  Hordese,  the  axis  is  somewhat 
zig-zag  by  the  alternate  insertion  of  the  large  spikelets  at 
the  nodes.  The  internodes  or  joints  are  flattened  or  con- 
cave toward  the  spikelet  and  convex  on  the  opposite  side. 
In  many  Hordese  the  axis  disarticulates  at  the  nodes  at 
maturity.  Such  disarticulation  often  occurs  also  in  other 
groups,  especially  among  the  Andropogonese.  The  axis  is 
sometimes  greatly  thickened  and  the  surface  hollowed 
out,  the  spikelets  fitting  into  the  cavities.  Such  is  the 
case  in  Tripsacum,  Manisuris  and  several  other  genera  of 
these  tribes,  and  also  in  Stenotaphrum  (Fig.  28).    In  the 


116  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

latter,  however,  the  inflorescence  is  really  branched, 
shortened  branchlets  with  2  spikelets  being  borne  in  each 
of  the  cavities  of  the  axis.  Sometimes,  as  in  Tripsacum 
and  Euchlsena  (Fig.  11),  the  axis  disarticulates  and  the 
1-seeded  joints  become  hard  bead-like  fruits.  The  cob  of 
an  ear  of  corn  is  a  greatly  thickened  axis  of  inflorescence, 
the  structure  of  which  is  discussed  in  Par.  202. 

The  spikes  and  spike-like  racemes  of  Chloridese  and  of 
many  Panicese  are  1-sided.  Here  the  axis  has  developed 
so  unsymmetrically  that  the  2  rows  of  spikelets  have  been 
forced  to  one  side.  The  axis  may  appear  thin  and  much 
flattened  as  in  many  species  of  Paspalum  (e.  g.,  P.  repens 
and  P.  stellatum)  or  somewhat  triangular  with  a  row  of 
spikelets  on  each  of  2  sides,  as  in  crab-grass. 

The  name  rachis  is  usually  applied  to  the  axis  of  spikes, 
and  spike-like  racemes  or  panicles,  or  to  the  axis  of  any 
contracted  inflorescence  or  portion  of  an  inflorescence. 

147.  Branching  of  panicles. — The  main  branches  of  a 
panicle  are  known  as  the  primary  branches.  Those  which 
arise  from  these  are  secondary  branches  and  this  name 
may  be  applied  to  branches  of  the  third  or  higher  order. 
The  ultimate  branches  or  branchlets  which  are  the  stalks 
of  the  individual  spikelets  are  the  pedicels  and  will  be 
considered  when  the  structure  of  the  spikelet  is  discussed. 
The  primary  branches  of  a  panicle  often  appear  to  be 
verticillate  or  at  least  more  than  one  from  a  node.  It 
will  be  observed  however  that  in  many  cases  there  is  1 
primary  branch  and  that  the  others  are  secondary  branches 
developed  at  the  base  of  a  primary  branch.  If  the  verticils 
are  composed  of  primary  branches  the  aggregation  is 
due  to  the  failure  of  the  internodes  to  elongate. 

If  the  several  branches  originating  at  one  node  all  stand  at 
one  side  of  the  main  axis  and  those  at  the  next  node  stand  on  the 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE  FLORAL  ORGANS        117 

opposite  side,  it  indicates  that  there  is  1  primary  branch  and  the 
others  are  basal  secondary  or  even  tertiary  branches.  Blue-grass 
and  cultivated  oat  illustrate  this.  The  former  normally  has  5 
branches  at  the  lower  node  of  the  inflorescence,  one  of  which,  the 
longer  central  one,  is  a  primary  branch,  the  others  being  branches 
of  higher  order. 

148.  Motor  organs. — In  the  axils  of  the  primary 
branches  of  open  or  spreading  panicles,  and  often  in  the 
axils  of  some  of  the  secondary  branches,  are  to  be  found 
swellings  or  cushions  of  tissue.  These  are  motor  organs 
whose  function  is  to  spread  the  branches  of  the  panicle  at 
the  proper  time.  This  opening  takes  place  when  the 
spikelets  on  the  branch  have  reached  the  stage  of  anthesis, 
and  progresses  from  above  downward,  the  branches  at 
the  base  being  the  last  to  develop  and  open.  The  move- 
ment is  brought  about  by  an  increase  in  size  due  to  tur- 
gidity  thereby  spreading  the  branch.  Usually  these  motor 
organs  act  only  during  anthesis  and  then  harden,  but  some- 
times by  losing  their  turgidity  they  later  bring  about  a 
contraction  of  the  panicle,  as  in  Dadylis  glomerata  (Fig. 
53)  and  Agrostis  alba. 

Occasionally  the  ultimate  branches  of  the  inflorescence 
do  not  end  in  a  spikelet.  Such  branches  are  known  as 
sterile  branches.  The  bristles  conspicuous  in  the  spike- 
like panicles  of  Chsetochloa  are  sterile  branchlets. 

THE    SPIKELET 

149.  The  spikelets  are  the  units  of  the  inflorescence 
and  are  borne  upon  its  ultimate  branches,  the  stalks  being 
called  the  pedicels.  The  spikelet  consists  of  a  short  axis 
bearing  1  or  more  flowers  in  the  axils  of  2-ranked  imbri- 
cated bracts.    As  an  example  of  a  typical  spikelet,  that 


118  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

of  Eragrostis  cilianensis  (E.  megastachya)  may  be  consid- 
ered (Fig.  51).  The  lower  pair  of  bracts  are  empty  and 
are  called  glumes.  The  lower  is  the  first  glume;  the  upper 
the  second  glume.  The  midnerve  is  the  keel.  The  bracts 
above  the  glumes  are  regularly  arranged  on  a  slender 
axis  or  rachilla,  alternately  in  2  ranks.  These  are  called 
lemmas.  In  the  axil  of  each  lemma,  except  1  or  more  of 
the  reduced  uppermost,  there  is  a  flower,  and  between  the 
flower  and  the  axis  a  second  smaller  bract  called  the  palea. 
The  lemmas  are  also  keeled  and  have  a  pair  of  lateral 
nerves.  The  palea  is  2-keeled,  and  is  inclosed  within  the 
margins  of  the  lemma.  The  lemma  and  palea  together 
with  the  inclosed  sexual  organs  are  called  the  floret. 

The  spikelet  may  be  interpreted  as  a  specialized 
branch,  bearing  a  series  of  bracts,  or  modified  leaves,  the 
lower  pair  (glumes)  being  empty,  the  others  (lemmas) 
bearing  a  much  specialized  branchlet  (the  flower)  in  the 
axil,  the  palea  being  the  prophyllum. 

The  terminology  here  adopted  differs  somewhat  from  that  in 
common  use  in  early  works  on  agrostology.  The  terms  with  which 
the  student  is  more  likely  to  come  in  contact  are:  For  glume,  the 
terms  empty  glume  and  empty  scale;  for  lemma,  the  terms  flowering 
glume,  flowering  scale  and  lower  palea  or  palet;  for  palea  the  altered 
spelling  palet.  The  objection  to  the  term  scale  is  that  this  name  is 
apphed  only  to  modified  leaves  on  a  shoot  below  the  foliage-leaves. 
The  modified  leaves  of  the  spikelet  are,  then,  to  be  included  under 
the  general  designation,  bracts.  It  seems  desirable,  however,  that 
special  terms  be  adopted  for  these  parts  as  they  are  so  often  used. 
In  this  the  writer  is  following  the  leading  contemporary  works  on 
plant  morphology.  Again,  for  the  sake  of  brevity  and  precision, 
there  is  a  distinct  advantage  in  using  separate  terms  for  the  bracts 
containing  flowers,  and  for  the  empty  pair  at  the  base  of  the  spikelet. 
Morphologically  the  glumes  and  lemmas  are  equivalent,  and  hence 
the  terms  empty  glume  and  flowering  glume  are  entirely  proper. 
But  the  constant  difference  in  relation  and  function  justifies  the 


MORPHOLOGY   OF   THE   FLORAL   ORGANS         119 

greater  distinction  of  the  terms  employed  for  them  and  the  re- 
duction of  these  terms  to  a  single  word.  The  term  lemma  was  first 
used  by  C.  V.  Piper.* 

Linnaeus  called  the  glumes  the  calyx,  and  the  lemma  and  palea 
the  corolla,  to  coordinate  the  terms  with  those  used  in  other  groups 
of  plants.  The  individual  glumes,  lemmas  and  paleaS  he  called 
valves.  He  speaks  of  the  calyx  of  Panicum  as  being  1-flowered  and 
3-valved;  of  the  corolla  as  being  2-valved;  the  calyx  of  Phleum  is 
1-flowered  and  2-valved;  the  calyx  of  Poa  is  2-valved  but  contains 
many  flowers;  the  calyx  of  Uniola  is  6-valved  (referring  to  the 
several  empty  bracts  at  the  base  of  the  spikelet)  and  contains  many 
flowers. 

According  to  Kunth,  the  spikelet  of  Sporobolus  consists  of  2 
glumes  and  2  paleas;  Panicum  of  2  glumes,  a  lower  mascuhne  or 
neutral  flower  with  1  or  2  paleas  and  an  upper  perfect  flower  with 
2  paleas. 

Gray  (Man.,  ed.  5)  uses  the  same  terminology  as  Kunth. 
Watson  (Gray,  Man.,  ed.  6)  uses  the  terms  empty  glumes  and 
flowering  glumes. 

Bentham  (Benth.  &  Hook.  Gen.  PI.)  calls  all  the  bracts  of  the 
spikelet  glumes  and  applies  the  term  palea  properly.  If  the  glume 
incloses  a  flower  it  is  a  flowering  glume,  otherwise  an  empty  glume. 
Hence  the  spikelet  of  Sporobolus  is  said  to  have  3  glumes,  2  empty 
and  1  flowering;  of  Panicum  to  have  4  glumes,  the  fourth  and  some- 
times the  third  a  flowering  glume. 

Stapf.  (Fl.  Cap.)  uses  the  terms  glumes;  valves  for  lemmas,  and 
pales  for  paleas. 

The  spikelet  described  above  may  be  considered 
typical  and  represents  the  usual  structure  in  the  tribe 
Festucese.  There  are  many  departures  from  this  type 
form,  however.  The  glumes  may  be  1  or  none;  the  flowers 
in  the  spikelet  may  be  reduced  to  1  or  to  1  perfect  flower 
with  additional  staminate  or  sterile  flowers  above  or 
below;  the  glumes  or  lemmas  may  be  modified  in  various 
ways;  or  the  whole  spikelet  may  be  sterile.    These  modi- 

*Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.  10:  8.  March  30,  1906. 
Science,  N.  S.  23:  790.  May  18,  1906. 


120  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

fications  will    be   discussed    in  detail    later.     Unisexual 
spikelets  have  been  mentioned  under  Par.  144. 

150.  Sterile  spikelets. — Sterile  spikelets  are  those 
which  differ  from  the  spikelets  with  which  they  are 
associated,  in  lacking  sexual  organs.  For  convenience 
the  term  is  sometimes  made  to  include  spikelets  that  con- 
tain stamens,  when  such  spikelets  are  the  equivalents  of  the 
sterile  ones.  In  Andropogon  the  spikelets  are  in  pairs,  a 
sessile  fertile  one  and  a  second  pediceled  one,  which 
in  different  species  may  be  staminate,  empty  or  reduced 
to  the  pedicel  (Fig.  16).  This  second  or  pediceled  spike- 
let  is  generally  referred  to  as  the  sterile  spikelet.  In  some 
genera  in  other  tribes  sterile  spikelets  occur,  usually  in  a 
definite  relation  to  the  fertile  ones.  These  sterile  spike- 
lets are  prominent  in  Achyrodes  and  Cynosurus.  In 
Hordeum  the  spikelets  are  in  clusters  of  3,  but  usually 
the  2  lateral  are  sterile.  In  Phalaris  paradoxa  the  spike- 
lets are  in  groups  of  7  of  which  6  are  sterile.  Sterile  spike- 
lets (when  lacking  stamens)  are  sometimes  called  neuter 
or  neutral  spikelets.  Staminate  spikelets,  except  those 
referred  to  above  which  have  a  definite  position  and  are 
the  equivalents  of  neuter  spikelets,  should  not  be  called 
sterile  spikelets. 

151.  The  pedicel  is  the  stalk  of  the  individual  spikelet 
and  represents  the  ultimate  branching  of  the  inflorescence. 
If  the  pedicel  is  so  short  that  it  is  not  evident  the  spike- 
let is  said  to  be  sessile.  On  the  other  hand  the  pedicels 
may  be  elongated  and  extremely  slender  as  in  Orthoclada. 
Sometimes  they  are  slender  and  nodding,  so  that  the 
spikelets  vibrate  or  tremble  in  the  breeze,  as  in  Briza 
media,  the  quaking-grass.  The  pedicel  may  be  jointed 
below  the  spikelet,  in  which  case  the  spikelet  disarticu- 
lates from  the  pedicel  at  maturity.   This  is  true  of  most  of 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE  FLORAL  ORGANS        121 

tribe  Paniceae.  In  the  series  Poseoideae  the  pedicel  is 
usually  not  jointed  below  the  spikelet  but  the  rachilla 
may  be  articulated  below  the  first  lemma,  so  that  at 
maturity  the  upper  part  of  the  spikelet  falls  away  leaving 
the  glumes.  There  are  exceptions  in  both  groups.  In 
many  species  of  Eragrostis  the  rachilla  remains  attached 
to  the  pedicel  and  the  lemmas  fall  away. 

The  pedicel  is  sometimes  differently  developed  in 
the  same  inflorescence,  as  in  many  Andropogonese,  where 
the  spikelets  are  in  pairs,  one  being  sessile  and  fertile, 
the  other  pediceled  and  bearing  a  staminate  spikelet  or 
only  a  bract  which  may  represent  a  glume,  or  the  spikelet 
may  be  aborted,  the  pedicel  persisting  as  a  naked  stalk. 

The  pedicel  may  be  grown  fast  to  the  axis  as  in  Rytilix 
and  Manisuris. 

152.  The  glumes  are  the  2  empty  bracts  at  the  base  of 
the  spikelet  and  are  called  respectively  the  first  and 
second  glume.  They  usually  differ  in  shape,  nervation  or 
texture  or  in  other  particulars  from  the  lemmas  above 
them.  Frequently  the  first  glume  is  smaller  than  the 
second  and  often  has  fewer  nerves.  Sometimes  this 
reduction  goes  so  far  that  the  first  glume  is  only  a  vestige 
or  it  may  be  altogether  wanting.  Syntherisma  shows 
various  stages  in  the  elimination  of  the  first  glume,  and 
in  Paspalum  the  first  glume  is  generally  absent  or  repre- 
sented by  a  slight  ridge.  However  there  are  species  of 
Paspalum  in  which  the  first  glume  may  be  present  or 
absent  in  the  same  raceme  (P.  distichum,  Paspalum  § 
Dimorphostachys).  The  first  glume  in  Eriochloa  is  usually 
represented  by  a  cup-shaped  ridge  below  the  normally 
shaped  second  glume,  but  is  present  in  certain  species. 
Both  glumes  are  absent  in  a  few  genera,  such  as  Reimaro- 
chloa  and  Homalocenchrus. 


122  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

The  student  should  take  careful  note  of  the  theoretical  relations 
of  the  parts  of  the  spikelet,  since  it  is  a  knowledge  of  these  relations 
that  enables  one  to  assign  a  morphological  status  to  an  absent  organ. 
The  glumes  and  lemmas  are  morphologically  equivalent,  namely 
bracts.  But  in  the  great  majority  of  species  of  grasses  the  lower  2 
bracts  of  the  spikelet  are  empty  and  the  others  above  contain  flowers. 
By  definition  the  lower  pair  are  called  glumes  and  those  above  are 
called  lemmas.  The  glumes  are  nearly  always  differentiated  structu- 
rally from  the  lemmas. 

The  theory  of  the  evolution  of  organisms  teaches  us  to  trace 
the  development,  progressively  or  retrogressively,  of  organs  through 
groups  of  allied  species.  Such  an  examination  will  usually  enable  us 
to  interpret  correctly  the  morphology  of  the  organs.  For  example,  we 
wish  to  know  the  morphology  of  the  spikelet  of  Reimarochloa  and 
Homalocenchrus.  In  the  former  we  have  a  spikelet  consisting  of  1 
empty  bract  and  1  flowering  bract.  How  is  this  to  be  interpreted? 
In  the  first  place  we  are  confident  that  the  genus  belongs  to  the  large 
tribe  Panicea^  and  that  it  is  closely  allied  to  Paspalum  and  Panicum. 
The  typical  spikelet  of  the  Panicese  consists  of  4  bracts,  the  upper- 
most of  which  contains  a  perfect  flower.  This  bract,  by  definition 
a  fertile  lemma,  is  distinctly  different  from  those  below.  The  first 
and  second  bracts  are  empty  and  by  definition  are  glumes.  The  third 
is  by  definition  also  a  lemma  even  though  it  contains  no  flower.  An 
examination  of  the  spikelets  of  various  genera  shows  that  there  are 
all  gradations  between  species  in  which  the  lower  lemma,  usually 
called  the  sterile  lemma,  contains  a  perfect  flower  (Isachne)  to  those 
which  contain  stamens,  or  only  a  pale  a,  and  finally  to  those  which 
are  empty.  This,  of  course,  confirms  the  statement  that  the  third 
bract  is  a  lemma.  No  transitions  are  found  between  the  glumes  and 
the  lemma.  But  we  do  find  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  glumes  to 
retrogress  in  size.  The  first  glume  is  usually  smaller  than  the  second, 
and  the  retrogression  can  easily  be  traced  through  its  slight  develop- 
ment in  Syntherisma  and  Panicum  to  its  disappearance  in  Paspalum. 
Similarly  the  second  glume  shows  a  tendency  to  disappear,  cul- 
minating in  its  absence  in  Reimarochloa.  Furthermore,  there  is 
no  tendency  for  the  second  glume  to  disappear  before  the  first.  From 
the  above  we  conclude  that  the  single  empty  bract  below  the  fertile 
lemma  in  Reimarochloa  is  the  sterile  lemma,  that  is,  it  is  homologous 
with  the  third  bract  or  sterile  lemma  of  the  typical  spikelet  of  the 
tribe. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE  FLORAL  ORGANS        123 

We  may  also  conclude  that  the  2  organs  inclosing  the  flower  of 
Homalocenchrus  are  lemma  and  palea  and  that  the  2  glumes  are 
absent,  since  in  Oryza,  a  closely  allied  genus,  the  glumes  are  present, 
though  small. 

The  glumes  are  sometimes  awned,  but  less  frequently 
so  than  are  the  lemmas.  They  are  variously  modified  and 
distorted  in  a  few  genera,  the  first  glumes  of  a  group  of 
spikelets  together  forming  a  sort  of  involucre  around  the 
group  (Anthephora),  thickened  like  a  bird's  head  (Lopho- 
lepis),  globose  and  pitted  (Rytilix).  The  large  second 
glume  is  covered  with  hooks  in  Nazia  so  that  the  group  of 
spikelets  becomes  a  bur.  In  Alopecurus  the  glumes  are 
connate,  that  is,  grown  together  along  the  edges  to  form 
a  cup  (Fig.  39). 

153.  Anomalous  glumes. — The  glumes  of  some  genera 
of  Hordeae  show  certain  anomalies.  In  Lolium  and  in  a 
few  allied  genera  the  spikelets  are  sessile  on  a  flattened 
rachis  but  stand  edgewise  to  this  instead  of  crosswise  as 
is  usual  in  other  genera  (Fig.  57).  But  one  glume  (the 
second)  is  present  and  this  on  the  outer  side  of  the  spike- 
let.  It  is  longer  and  larger  than  the  lemmas,  sometimes 
longer  than  the  spikelet,  and  looks  like  a  subtending  bract. 
In  the  terminal  spikelet  of  the  spike,  however,  both 
glumes  are  developed.  In  Sitanion  and  some  species  of 
allied  genera  the  glumes  are  reduced  to  subulate  awns, 
these  forming  a  sort  of  involucre  to  the  groups  of  spike- 
lets. In  certain  species  of  Elymus  (e.g.,  E.  virginicus  L.) 
the  glumes  of  the  lateral  spikelets  stand  in  pairs  in  front 
of  the  spikelets. 

Hochstetter  states  that  the  glumes  of  Hordeum  and  many 
species  of  Elymus  are  single  but  cleft  into  2  parts.  Schenck  thinks 
that  they  are  sterile  spikelets.  (For  full  discussion,  see  Bot.  Jahrb. 
Engler40:97.    1907.) 


124  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

154.  The  lemmas  are  the  bracts  of  the  spikelet  above 
the  glumes.  They  ordinarily  subtend  flowers  but  some- 
times are  empty.  The  lemmas  vary  from  1  to  many  (as 
many  as  50  in  Eragrostis).and  except  in  Streptochaeta  are 
in  2  ranks  upon  the  rachilla.  As  is  usually  the  case  with 
bracts,  the  lemma  represents  the  leaf-base,  the  blade 
not  being  developed. 

Streptochaeta  is  an  anomalous  Brazilian  genus  in  which  the 
lemmas  are  spirally  arranged. 

In  the  more  primitive  forms  of  grasses,  the  lemmas 
are  usually  bract-like  in  appearance  and  in  a  general  way 
resemble  the  glumes,  being  greenish,  keeled  and  nerved. 
In  more  modified  forms  such  as  Andropogoneae,  the  lemmas 
are  often  thin  and  delicate,  being  entirely  inclosed  by  the 
enlarged  and  indurated  glumes.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
lemma  may  be  hardened,  as  in  most  Panicese,  where  the 
lemma  of  the  fertile  floret  is  hard,  usually  smooth  and 
nerveless.  Modification  is  carried  to  a  greater  extent  in 
the  lemma  than  in  any  other  organ  of  the  grass  plant. 
For  this  reason  the  form  of  the  lemma  is  of  great  impor- 
tance in  classification,  its  shape,  texture  and  nerving  being 
uniform  within  definite  limits  in  any  given  genus.  In 
those  genera,  such  as  Andropogon  and  its  relatives, 
Hilaria,  Anthephora  and  the  like,  in  which  the  glumes  are 
enlarged,  indurated  or  otherwise  specialized,  the  lemmas 
are  found  to  be  thin  or  small  or  otherwise  to  show  but 
little  modification. 

In  grasses  having  unspecialized  or  but  slightly  modi- 
fied glumes,  as  in  most  of  the  genera,  the  lemmas  are 
usually  strongly  characteristic.  The  lemma,  whether 
bearing  a  fertile  flower  or  empty,  as  in  the  lower  lemma  in 
most  species  of  Panicese,  or  modified  into  a  cluster  of 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE  FLORAL  ORGANS        125 

awns,  as  in  some  species  of  Chloridese,  is  to  be  recognized 
by  its  position  on  the  rachilla.  In  canary-grass  {Phalaris 
canariensis  L.)  there  are  2  minute  bracts  at  the  base  of  the 
fertile  lemma.  These  are  greatly  reduced  lemmas.  The 
indurated  lemma  of  Stipa  and  Aristida  is  peculiar  in  that 
it  assumes  a  cylindrical  form  and  extends  downward  into 
a  hard,  sharp-pointed  callus  (Figs.  35,  36).  At  maturity 
the  fruits,  by  means  of  this  sharp  point  and  by  the 
hygroscopic  awns  at  the  apex,  are  able  to  bury  themselves 
in  the  soil.  Certain  genera  of  Andropogonese  (Hetero- 
pogon,  Chrysopogon)  produce  fruits  similar  in  general 
appearance  to  those  of  Stipa,  but  in  the  former  the  fruit 
is  developed  from  a  spikelet  instead  of  from  a  floret. 

In  Heteropogon  and  other  genera  of  Andropogonese  with  stout 
awns,  the  first  glume  is  indurated,  cylindrical  and  sharp-pointed  at 
base  as  in  the  lemma  in  Stipa.  Within  this  are  the  second  glume,  the 
sterile  lemma  and  the  fertile  lemma,  all  thin  and  hyahne,  the  latter 
bearing  the  long  stout  awn. 

155.  Sterile  florets  and  sterile  lemmas. — Sterile  florets 
are  those  which  differ  from  the  perfect  florets  of  the  spike- 
let  in  which  they  are  found  in  lacking  pistils.  They  may 
also  lack  stamens,  and  consist  of  a  lemma  and  palea,  or 
the  palea  also  may  be  lacking.  The  lemma  of  such  a 
floret  is  called  a  sterile  lemma.  If  a  lower  floret  lacks 
stamens,  then  the  lemma  is  the  same  as  the  third  empty 
glume  of  some  authors,  when  they  refer  to  bracts  above 
the  first  pair.  In  many  genera  of  the  series  Poaoidese  the 
upper  florets  are  reduced  to  sterile  florets.  In  Melica 
there  may  be  2  or  3  sterile  lemmas  successively  convolute 
one  within  another.  In  most  of  the  genera  of  Panicoidese 
there  is  a  sterile  floret  below  a  terminal  perfect  one.  The 
sterile  floret  of  Panicum  and  its  allies  has  been  mentioned 


126  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

before  (Par.  152).  The  sterile  lemma  of  Andropogonese, 
also  below  the  perfect  floret  as  in  Panicese,  is  membrana- 
ceous, thinner  than  the  glumes,  often  very  delicate.  In 
the  tribe  Phalarideae,  there  are  usually  2  -sterile  florets  at 
the  base  of  the  terminal  fertile  floret  (Fig.  34).  These 
lateral  florets  may  be  empty  (Phalaris,  Anthoxanthum) 
or  staminate  (Savastana). 

156.  The  awns  are  bristle-like  continuations  of  the 
nerves  of  the  glumes  or  lemmas.  Awns  involve  vascular 
tissue  while  hairs  of  various  kinds  (trichomes)  involve 
only  epidermal  tissue.  The  commonest  position  for  the 
awn  is  terminal  as  in  Festuca,  where  the  midnerve  is 
extended  as  a  bristle.  Often  the  apex  of  the  lemma  is 
cleft  and  the  awn  arises  from  between  the  lobes  or  teeth. 
Occasionally  the  2  teeth  thus  formed  are  also  awned. 
Sometimes  the  lateral  nerves  of  the  lemma  extend  into 
teeth  or  awns  (Tridens). 

In  the  cases  mentioned,  the  central  a^vn  is  terminal. 
Sometimes  the  awn  arises  below  the  apex  of  the  lemma 
even  nearly  at  the  base,  in  which  case  it  is  said  to  be  dorsal. 
When  the  awn  is  dorsal,  the  lemma  shows  no  midnerve 
above  the  point  of  attachment  of  the  awn  or  rather  above 
the  point  where  the  midnerve  separates  from  the  tissue 
of  the  lemmas,  thus  forming  an  awn  (Fig.  45).  The  awns 
of  Aristida  (Fig.  35)  are  usually  trifid,  with  divergent 
often  much-elongated  branches  (as  much  as  4  inches  long 
in  a  South  American  species).  In  Pappophorum  the 
lemma  is  divided  at  the  summit  into  many  awns.  In 
other  genera  the  awns  are  hooked,  or  bent,  or  variously 
divided,  sometimes  smooth,  but  usually  scabrous,  some- 
times plumose.  In  several  genera  the  awn  is  jointed  at 
the  base  and  deciduous,  as  in  Oryzopsis,  Nassella,  Pipto- 
chsetium. 


MORPHOLOGY  OF  THE  FLORAL  ORGANS        127 

Morphologically  the  awn  is  thought  to  represent  the 
blade,  and  the  lemma  the  sheath  of  a  primary  leaf.  If  the 
awn  is  dorsal  the  free  portion  of  the  lemma  above  the 
insertion  of  the  awn  probably  represents  the  ligule.  (See 
Domin,  Ann.  Jard.  Bot.  Buitenzorg  24:200.    1910.) 

157.  Twisted  awns. — Not  infrequently  the  awns  are 
spirally  twisted.  This  torsion  is  well  shown  in  the  large 
awns  of  certain  species  of  Stipa,  such  as  the  porcupine- 
grass  of  the  prairies  (S.  spartea  Trin.).  The  awns  are 
several  inches  long,  stout  at  base  but  tapering  to  a  fine 
point  (Fig.  36).  The  awn  at  first  is  straight  and  untwisted, 
but  at  maturity  it  bends  at  2  points  and  becomes  closely 
spirally  twisted  up  to  the  second  bend.  The  torsion  is 
very  sensitive  to  atmospheric  moisture  so  that  the  awn 
becomes  less  twisted  or  almost  straight  in  moist  air  and 
twists  tightly  again  in  dry  air.  Twisted  awns  are  found 
especially  in  Andropogonese  (Fig.  16),  Avenese  (Fig.  44), 
and  Stipa. 

158.  The  palea  is  the  bract  standing  between  the 
flower  and  the  rachilla.  It  is  usually  2-nerved  or  2- 
keeled  with  the  space  between  the  nerves  concave  and 
with  the  margins  bent  forward  about  the  flower.  It  is 
homologous  with  the  prophyllum  which  it  resembles  in 
structure.  The  palea  is  usually  embraced  by  the  lemma  at 
the  margins,  or  sometimes  entirely  inclosed  as  in  Stipa 
and  Aristida,  although  it  may  project  more  or  less  at  the 
apex.  Though  the  palea  is  usually  2-nerved,  it  is  appar- 
ently 1-nerved  in  a  few  genera  because  the  2  nerves  are 
so  close  together  (e.g.,  Cinna).  So-called  1-nerved  paleas 
occur  only  in  1-flowered  spikelets.  The  apex  of  the  palea 
is  usually  rounded  or  notched  but  may  be  toothed,  the 
teeth  being  rarely  awned.  The  keels  are  usually  smooth 
or  scabrous  but  may  be  ciliate  (Eragrostis),  winged  (Pleu- 


128  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

ropogon),  or  the  margins  may  be  greatly  enlarged  (Ixo- 
phorus).  The  palea  is  reduced  to  a  nerveless  scale  or  may 
be  obsolete  in  Agrostis  and  in  species  of  Andropogon. 
The  palea  usually  falls  from  the  rachilla  together  with 
the  lemma  but  may  be  persistent  upon  the  axis  (e.  g., 
Eragrostis,  Fig.  51). 

159.  The  lodicules  are  small  organs  found  at  the  base 
of  the  floret,  outside  the  stamens.  They  are  usually  2 
in  number,  standing  in  front  of  the  lemma,  close  together. 
A  third  lodicule  is  present  in  a  few  genera  and  is  placed 
in  front  of  the  palea.  In  the  anomalous  bamboo  genus 
Ochlandra  there  are  several  lodicules.  The  function  of  the 
lodicules  is  to  open  the  floret  at  anthesis.  They  become 
turgid  and  thus  spread  the  lemma  and  palea  apart,  later 
collapsing  and  allowing  the  floret  to  close  by  its  own 
elasticity.  The  lodicules  are  interpreted  by  some  to  be 
homologous  with  the  divisions  of  a  perianth  of  which  only 
2  divisions  have  usually  persisted. 

160.  The  stamen  consists  of  a  delicate  filiform  fila- 
ment and  a  2-celled  anther,  opening  by  longitudinal  slits. 
The  anthers  are  basifixed  but  so  deeply  sagittate,  as  to 
appear  versatile.  There  are  usually  3  stamens,  1  standing 
in  front  of  the  lemma  and  1  opposite  each  edge  of  the  palea. 
Sometimes  there  is  a  second  whorl  inside  of  the  first  and 
alternating  with  it,  making  6  stamens  (most  bamboos, 
many  Oryzea?).  There  are  various  departures  from  these 
numbers.  There  may  be  only  2  (Diarrhena),  or  only  1 
(('inna),  rarely  4  in  2  whorls,  and  in  certain  anomalous 
genera  more  than  6  (Pariana,  Luziola,  Ochlandra).  The 
filaments  are  more  or  less  connate  in  a  few  bamboos  and 
in  Streptochaeta. 

From  the  standpoint  of  evolution,  the  species  with  6  stamens 
in  2  whorls  probably  represent  a  more  primitive  form  as  this  structure 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE  FLORAL  ORGANS         129 

would  tend  to  show  relationship  with  the  UUes.  The  species  with  1 
and  2  stamens  evidently  show  a  reduction  from  the  usual  3-stamened 
type  by  the  abortion  of  1  or  more  of  its  members. 

161.  The  pistil  is  single,  with  a  1 -celled  ovary,  2  styles 
and  2  stigmas.  Occasionally  there  are  3  styles  (Strepto- 
chseta,  some  bamboos),  or  only  1  (Nardus).  There  is 
apparently  only  1  also  in  corn  (the  "silk")  but  this  arises 
from  the  union  of  2.  When  there  are  2  styles  or  2  sessile 
stigmas  they  arise  not  from  the  apex  of  the  ovary  but 
from  the  sides  near  the  apex.  Sometimes  there  is  a  single 
style  that  divides  into  2  branches.  The  styles  of  corn  are 
unusually  long  and  slender  thus  raising  the  stigmas  out 
of  the  large  bracts  or  husks  surrounding  the  ear.  The 
stigmas  usually  consist  of  papillate  or  plumose  continua- 
tions of  the  styles.  The  ovary  contains  a  single  ovule 
grown  to  the  side  of  the  ovary  without  a  funiculus,  the 
micropyle  turned  downward.  In  Streptochseta  and  Strep- 
togyne  the  long  spirally  twisted  styles  and  stigmas  of 
adjacent  spikelets  become  interlaced  at  maturity. 

According  to  Hackel  and  others,  the  pistil  is  1-carpeled; 
according  to  Walker,  it  is  made  up  of  3  carpels  (Walker, 
"On  the  Structure  of  the  Pistils  of  Some  Grasses."  Univ. 
Nebr.  Studies  6:  No.  3.    1906.) 

162.  The  fruit  is  usually  a  caryopsis,  the  seed  being 
adherent  to  the  pericarp.  The  seed-coat  is  poorly  devel- 
oped and  the  pericarp  acts  as  a  seed-coat.  The  caryopsis 
is  sometimes  more  or  less  united  with  the  palea,  rarely 
also  with  the  lemma.  The  caryopsis  is,  however,  often 
inclosed  within  the  lemma  and  palea  without  being  adher- 
ent to  them. 

As  in  flowering  plants  in  general  the  fruit  in  the  restricted  sense 
is  the  ripened  ovary  and  its  contents.  In  a  wider  sense  the  fruit  is 
the  ripened  ovary  together  with  the  adjacent  parts  which  may  aid  in 

I 


130  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

protection,  germination  or  dispersal.    In  the  present  discussion  the 
term  fruit  is  used  in  both  senses. 

The  fruit  of  Panicum  and  allied  genera  consists  of 
the  hard,  tightly  closed  fertile  lemma  and  palea  within 
which  is  the  caryopsis  (Fig.  21).  Not  infrequently  the  awn 
of  the  lemma  is  involved  in  the  fruit  and  performs  an 
important  function  in  dispersal  or  in  connection  with 
germination.  This  is  the  case  with  Stipa  (Fig.  36), 
Aristida  (Fig.  35),  Heteropogen  and  many  Avenese. 
The  fruit  may  include  the  surrounding  sterile  branchlets 
forming  a  bur,  as  in  Cenchrus  (Fig.  27);  a  greatly  har- 
dened inclosing  bract,  as  in  Coix  (Fig.  12);  the  joints  of 
the  rachis  in  which  the  spikelet  is  partially  inclosed,  as  in 
Tripsacum;  or  a  combination  of  rachis  joint  and  long- 
awned  sterile  spikelets,  as  in  Sitanion  and  Hordeum. 

Rarely  the  ovary  ripens  into  some  form  other  than  a 
caryopsis.  In  a  few  genera  such  as  Sporobolus  and  Eleu- 
sine,  it  becomes  an  utricle,  the  pericarp  being  thin  and  not 
grown  to  the  seed.  In  many  species  of  Sporobolus,  for 
example  S.  airoides  Torr.  and  8.  indicus  (L.)  R.  Br.,  the 
pericarp  tends  to  split  vertically  into  2  valves,  thus  being 
dehiscent.  The  pericarp  of  Eleusine  breaks  away  irregu- 
larly. The  fruit  becomes  a  nut  or  a  berry  in  certain 
bamboos. 

163.  The  seed  consists  of  an  embryo  at  the  base  on 
one  side  and  of  endosperm  occupying  the  remaining  por- 
tion. If  the  surface  of  a  caryopsis  is  examined,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  embryo  is  outlined  as  a  depressed  usually  oval 
area  at  the  base  on  the  front  side,  that  is,  on  the  side 
facing  the  lemma.  On  the  opposite  side,  next  the  palea, 
is  the  mark  called  the  hilum,  which  indicates  the  place 
where  the  seed  was  attached  to  the  wall  of  the  ovary 
(pericarp).    The  hilum  may  be  elongated  if  the  seed  is 


MORPHOLOGY  OF   THE  FLORAL  ORGANS        131 

attached  for  a  considerable  distance,  or  may  be  puncti- 
form,  and  is  characteristic  in  shape  for  some  genera.  There 
is  often  a  furrow  on  this  posterior  side  of  the  caryopsis  in 
which  will  be  found  the  hilum.  Since  the  palea  is  often 
grown  to  the  caryopsis  this  must  be  removed  when  search- 
ing for  the  hilum. 

164.  The  embryo  is  straight  or  nearly  so,  the  plumule 
directed  upward  and  the  young  root  downward.  The 
corn  grain  illustrates  the  general  features  of  all  grass 
embryos.  An  important  organ  is  the  scutellum  which  is 
attached  to  the  embryo  at  the  middle  and  enfolds  it, 
lying  against  the  endosperm  on  its  outer  surface.  This 
organ  is  thought  to  represent  the  first  leaf  or  cotyledon. 
Its  function  is  to  absorb  the  nourishment  from  the  stored 
food  during  germination.  In  large  embryos  like  the  corn 
there  may  be  observed  on  the  sides  of  the  epicotyl,  or  first 
joint  above  the  attachment  of  the  scutellum,  the  begin- 
nings of  lateral  or  secondary  roots.  In  other  genera  the 
rudimentary  secondary  roots  usually  appear  on  the 
hypocotyl. 

165.  The  endosperm  consists  mainly  of  starch, 
although  there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  oil,  which, 
however,  is  mainly  in  the  embryo.  On  the  outside  within 
the  epidermis  is  a  layer  of  cells  containing  aleurone,  rich 
in  protein.  The  stored  food  is  also  called  albumen  by 
some  authors.  The  endosperm  is  hard  and  corneous  or 
mealy  according  to  the  density  of  the  starch-contain- 
ing cells. 

166.  The  rachilla  is  the  axis  of  the  spikelet.  It  may  be 
jointed  to  the  pedicel  below  the  glumes  (usual  in  Pani- 
coideae),  or  jointed  above  the  glumes  (usual  in  Poa- 
oideae).  It  may  be  continuous  (Eragrostis,  Fig.  51)  or 
articulated  between  the  florets  at  maturity   (Festuca). 


132  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

In  genera  with  many-flowered  spikelets  the  rachilla  is  of 
course  elongated,  while  in  1-flowered  spikelets  it  is  reduced 
so  that  the  floret  seems  to  be  terminal.  It  often  extends 
beyond  the  insertion  of  the  upper  floret  in  many-flowered 
spikelets  but  is  usually  hidden  by  the  upper  lemmas.  In 
1-flowered  spikelets  the  rachilla  may  extend  beyond  the 
base  of  the  floret.  It  then  appears  as  a  slender  sometimes 
plumose  bristle  or  stalk  pressed  against  the  palea.  This 
extension  of  the  rachilla  sometimes  bears  a  rudimentary 
second  floret.  The  first  internode  of  the  rachilla  above 
the  glumes  is  sometimes  elongated,  forming  a  stipe  to  the 
floret.  This  stipe  may  be  developed  into  a  sharp-pointed 
callus,  which  at  maturity  aids  in  seed-dispersal  (Stipa, 
Aristida).  Usually  the  internodes  of  the  rachilla  between 
the  florets  are  short,  the  florets  being  closely  imbricated; 
but,  occasionally,  they  are  elongated,  the  florets  being 
rather  distant,  as  in  Senites. 

A  peculiar  jointing  of  the  rachilla  is  to  be  observed  in  Festiica 
subuliflora  Scribn.  in  which  there  is  an  articulation  midway  between 
the  distant  florets.  This  is  probably  due  to  "a  downward  elongation 
of  the  callus,  surrounding  and  becoming  grown  to  the  rachilla, 
which  has  likewise  become  elongated  so  that  the  joint  is  still  at  the 
base  of  the  callus."  * 

*  Piper,  Contr.  U.S.  Nat.  Herb.  10:36.    1906. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

ECOLOGY 

Ecology  is  that  branch  of  botany  which  treats  of  the 
relation  of  plants  to  their  environment.  It  is  often  con- 
sidered to  be  a  branch  of  physiology  since  it  is  a  study  of 
the  response  to  stimuli.  Plants  are  acted  upon  by  exter- 
nal factors,  either  physical  or  biological.  The  response 
to  these  forces  determines  the  plant's  adaptation  to  its 
environment.  The  more  important  ways  in  which  grasses 
are  influenced  by  environment  will  be  briefly  discussed. 

SEED    DISPERSAL 

167.  The  seeds  of  grasses  are  for  the  most  part 
adapted  to  dispersal  by  means  of  the  wind.  Some  kinds 
are  so  small  that  they  are  readily  transported  in  this 
manner  without  any  special  adaptation.  The  fruit  by 
itself  (Eragrostis)  or  inclosed  in  the  lemma  and  palea 
(Poa)  is  easily  blown  about  by  air  currents.  In  Panicum 
and  its  allies  the  whole  spikelet  falls  away  by  disarticula- 
ting below  the  glumes.  Among  the  Andropogonese  the 
axis  of  the  spike  usually  disarticulates  between  the  pairs 
of  spikelets  and  the  resulting  joints  are  sufficiently  small 
to  allow  of  their  being  easily  transported  by  the  wind. 

168.  Dispersal  by  wind. — But  the  fruit  is  not  infre- 
quently modified  in  such  manner  as  to  make  wind  dis- 
persal more  effective.  A  common  adaptation  is  the  devel- 
opment of  silky  hairs  on  some  part  of  the  fruit.    Such 

(133) 


134  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

hairs  are  found  on  the  lemmas  in  Arundo,  on  the  rachilla 
joints  in  Phragmites,  on  the  whole  spikelet  in  Saccharum 
(Fig.  14),  on  the  awns  in  Stipa  pennata  L.  of  Europe  and 
S.  speciosa  Trin.  &  Rupr.  of  California,  on  the  long  pedi- 
cels of  S.  elegantissima  Labill.  of  Australia.  Awns  and 
bristles  often  aid  dispersal  by  increasing  the  surface.  Clus- 
ters of  spikelets,  with  their  surrounding  involucre  of  bris- 
tles, fall  away  from  the  rachis,  the  bristles  catching  air 
currents.  Long-a^vned  species  of  Hordese,  with  disarticu- 
lating rachis,  are  adapted  to  wind  dispersal.  Sitanion  and 
Hordeum  are  good  examples  of  this.  The  joints  of  Sitan- 
ion, with  their  numerous  long  a,wns  spreading  in  all  direc- 
tions, are  sent  whirling  across  the  open  grassland  in  the 
western  states.  In  many  species  of  Aristida  (Fig.  35)  the 
3  awns  spread  horizontally  or  are  somewhat  reflexed.  On 
the  Great  Plains  it  is  common  to  see,  at  the  proper  season, 
the  fruits  of  these  grasses  being  hurled  along  by  the  high 
winds,  the  sharp-pointed  callus  to  the  front  ready  to  catch 
in  the  wool  or  hair  of  animals.  From  such  fruits  it  is  an 
easy  transition  to  wing-fruits,  in  which  the  increased  sur- 
face is  furnished  by  ^vings,  appendages  or  sterile  parts. 
The  inflated  lemma  of  Briza,  the  winged  crests  on  the 
lemmas  of  Phalaris,  the  group  of  sterile  spikelets  of 
Phalaris  paradoxa,  all  aid  in  dispersal.  In  some  grasses 
the  whole  inflorescence  breaks  away  and  becomes  a 
"tumble-weed."  The  panicles  of  Panicum  capillar e  L., 
Agrostis  hiemalis  (Walt.)  B.  S.  P.,  Chloris  vertidllata  Nutt. 
and  Eragrostis  pedinacea  (Michx.)  Nees,  are  familiar  exam- 
ples. At  maturity  the  panicles  separate  from  the  plant 
and  roll  over  the  surface  of  the  ground  before  the  wind, 
the  widely  spreading  branches  making  the  whole  very 
light.  The  small  fruits  are  dropped  here  and  there  as  the 
]ninicle  travels.   The  inflorescence  of  Schedonnardus  panic- 


ECOLOGY  135 

ulatus  (Nutt.)  Trel,  a  common  grass  in  Texas,  consists 
of  several  slender  distant  spikes  arranged  along  a  slender 
axis.  After  flowering,  the  central  axis  greatly  elongates 
becoming  at  the  same  time  somewhat  spirally  coiled.  The 
lateral  spikes  also  elongate.  There  results  a  loose  cylin- 
drical skeleton  that  can  be  easily  rolled  along  by  the  wind 
after  it  disarticulates  from  the  parent  plant. 

An  indirect  method  of  adaptation  for  wind  dispersal 
is  illustrated  by  the  fruits  of  Eleusine  indica  (L.)  Gaertn. 
and  Sporoholus  indicus  (L.)  R.  Br.  The  pericarp  of  these, 
when  wet,  develops  a  mucilage  by  which  the  seeds  are 
enabled  to  stick  to  leaves  or  other  objects  that  may  be 
blown  about  by  the  wind.  In  so  far  as  they  are  able  to 
stick  to  birds  or  other  animals  they  are  adapted  also  to 
this  method  of  dispersal. 

169.  Dispersal  by  animals. — Some  grasses  are  adapted 
to  dispersal  by  the  aid  of  animals.  The  species  of  Cen- 
chrus  (Fig.  27)  produce  burs  made  up  of  a  group  of  con- 
nate branchlets  armed  with  retrorsely  barbed  spines. 
The  bur-like  spikelet  of  Nazia  produces  hooks  on  the 
second  glume.  The  callus  of  the  fruits  of  Aristida  (Fig. 
35),  Stipa  (Fig.  36),  Heteropogon,  Chrysopogon  and 
other  needle-fruits  of  this  kind,  is  sharp-pointed  and  armed 
with  retrorse  hairs.  Such  fruits  readily  bore  into  the 
coats  of  animals.  The  fruits  of  certain  Hordese,  with 
disarticulating  rachises,  have  been  mentioned  above 
under  adaptations  for  wind  dispersal  Usually  in  these 
fruits,  the  point  of  the  rachis-joint  is  sharp  and  the  awns 
are  antrorsely  scabrous  (the  teeth  pointing  forward). 
They  thus  are  adapted  to  working  their  way  into  the  coats 
of  animals.  In  Panicum  glutinosum  of  the  American 
tropics  the  spikelets  are  viscid  and  readily  attach  them- 
selves to  a  passing  body. 


136  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

GERMINATION 

170.  The  situation  of  the  embryo  in  the  grass  seed  is 
such  that  by  the  enlargement  and  growi:h  of  the  organs 
the  plumule  and  root  at  once  emerge  in  opposite  direc- 
tions. The  seed  remains  in  position,  which  is  usually 
upon  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  primary  root  at 
first  elongates  but  soon  secondary  roots  appear  which  in 
a  short  time  exceed  the  primary.  The  plumule  pushes  up 
somewhat  later.  The  first  leaf  of  the  plumule  acts  as  a 
protecting  sheath  and  never  develops  into  a  foliage  leaf. 
If  the  seed  is  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  this  sheath, 
closed  at  the  apex,  elongates  until  the  surface  is  reached, 
when  the  tip  breaks  and  the  bud  pushes  through.  In 
many  embryos  there  is  a  small  scale-like  organ  (epiblast) 
at  the  base  of  the  plumule  opposite  the  scutellum.  This 
is  thought  by  some  to  represent  a  leaf,  in  which  case  the 
scutellum  is  the  first  leaf  or  cotyledon,  and  the  pro- 
tecting sheath  of  the  plumule  is  the  third  leaf. 

171.  The  germination  of  the  maize  is  described  at 
length  by  Collins.  The  protecting  sheath  he  calls  the 
coleoptyle.  Between  the  coleoptyle  and  the  seed  is  a  more 
or  less  elongated  axis  to  which  the  name  mesocotyl  is 
given.  This  portion  is  called  by  Hackel  and  others  the 
epicotyl  on  the  supposition  that  it  is  an  internode  above 
the  cotyledon  or  scutellum.  Collins  and  others  consider 
the  scutellum,  epiblast  and  coleoptyle  to  be  all  parts  of  a 
highly  specialized  cotyledon.  Collins  also  describes  the 
germination  of  Hopi  and  Navajo  varieties  of  maize  in 
which  the  mesocotyl  elongates  greatly,  reaching  the 
enormous  length  of  25  or  even  30  cm.  The  plumule  is 
thus  able  to  reach  the  surface  from  a  corresponding  depth. 
Such  varieties  are  adapted  to   dry  regions.     The   usual 


ECOLOGY  137 

varieties  of  maize  are  unable  to  force  the  mesocotyl  to  a 
length  greater  than  10  cm.  (Collins,  Journ.  Agr.  Res. 
1:293.    1914). 

172.  Impervious  seed-conveyers. — At  maturity  all 
seeds  are  moderately  dry  within,  that  is,  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  endosperm  during  the  dormant  stage  the  moist- 
ure has  been  reduced  to  a  minimum.  To  protect  the 
contents  against  further  loss  of  moisture  which  would 
injure  or  kill  the  embryo,  the  seed  is  enveloped  by  an 
impervious  coating,  which  serves  the  double  purpose  of 
preventing  the  loss  of  moisture  from  within  and  the 
absorption  of  moisture  from  without.  The  protecting 
coating  may  be  in  immediate  contact  with  the  seed  or  it 
may  be  developed  from  some  outer  coating  or  organ.  If 
an  outer  coating  such  as  the  glumes  become  hardened  for 
this  purpose,  then  the  inner  organs,  lemma  and  pericarp 
are  comparatively  thin. 

The  protective  coating  is  developed  from  the  seed-coat  (Sporo- 
bolus),  pericarp  (wheat),  lemma  and  palea  (Panicum),  glumes 
(Andropogon),  rachis  and  glume  (Tripsacum),  sheathing  bract 
(Coix),  involucre  (Cenchrus),  or  various  combinations  of  these. 
In  some  cases,  as  in  Cenchrus,  several  seeds  are  protected  by  the 
same  outer  coating. 

173.  SeLf-burial.  —  The  dormant  stage  continues 
through  the  season  unfavorable  ■  for  germination,  that  is, 
winter  or  a  dry  season.  When  the  season  for  germination 
arrives,  the  s,eed,  under  the  influence  of  moisture  and 
higher  temperature,  gradually  absorbs  water,  growth  is 
started,  the  embryo  swells  and  bursts  through  its  sur- 
roundings, and  germination  has  begun.  Ordinarily  the 
seeds  are  more  or  less  covered  with  earth  or  debris  by  the 
action  of  the  wind.  But  some  seeds  are  aided  in  self- 
burial  by  the  torsion  of  the  awns  they  possess.    The  awns 


138  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

of  Stipa  (Fig.  36)  have  already  been  described  (Par.  156). 
By  the  alternate  drying  and  wetting  they  twist  and  un- 
twist, bend  and  straighten.  The  fruits,  being  provided 
with  a  sharp  callus,  covered  with  retrorse  hairs,  gradually 
insinuate  themselves  into  the  porous  covering  of  the  soil 
and  finally  into  the  soil  itself.  As  the  fruit  is  heavier  at 
the  base,  it  tends  to  fall  point  down.  Awns  of  this  kind 
are  found  upon  the  fruits  of  a  number  of  genera,  the  burial 
being  brought  about  by  the  rotation  of  the  twisted  portion 
or  by  the  bending  and  straightening  of  a  geniculate  portion 
or  by  a  combination  of  these.  Straight  a^vTis  or  bristles 
that  are  antrorsely  scabrous  undoubtedly  act  in  the 
same  manner. 

Examples  of  tortion:  Stipa,  Aristida,  Heretopogon,  Chryso- 
pogon,  Sorghastrum,  Arundinella,  Avena,  Danthonia.  Examples 
of  antrorsely  scabrous  awns:  Hordeum,  Sitanion. 

174.  Water  grasses. — The  seeds  of  water  grasses  fall 
into  the  water  and  remain  moist  until  germination.  It 
has  been  shown  that  the  seeds  of  Zizania  palustris  are 
injured  by  exposure  for  any  considerable  length  of  time* 
to  the  drying  influence  of  the  air. 

If  the  caryopsis  at  the  time  of  germination  is  normally'  inclosed 
within  outer  envelopes,  as  lemmas  or  glumes,  the  embryo  must  be 
able  to  push  its  root  and  plumule  through  or  around  these  parts. 
The  usual  method  is  for  the  root  to  break  through  the  obstruction 
and  for  the  plumule  to  push  up  between  the  parts. 

Some  of  the  grains   (wheat,   rye,   corn  and  kafir)  are  naked 

caryopsides  and  the  growth  of  the  embryo  is  unhampered.  The  grain 

or  caryopsis  of  the  oat  is  permanently  invested  by  the  lemma  and 

palea.    The  root  breaks  through  the  back  of  the  lemma  near  the 

base  and  the  shoot  pushes  up  between  the  grain  and  the  lemma, 

emerging  at  the  apex.    The  fruit  of  barley  also  consists  of  the  grain 

inclosed  in  the  lemma  and  palea  and  more  or  less  adherent  to  the 

*For  a  full  discussion  of  this  subject,  see  BroTv-n  &  Scofield,  "Wild  Rice:  Its 
Uses  and  Propagation."    U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  Bur.  PI.  Ind.  Bulletin  No.  50.   1903 


ECOLOGY  139 

former.  Emmer  differs  from  wheat  in  that  the  whole  spikelet  con- 
taining several  seeds  becomes  a  fruit  and  breaks  away  from  the 
rachis  entire.  The  seed-like  fruit  of  foxtail  millet  {Chsetochloa  italica) 
and  proso  millet  (Panicum  miliaceum)  consists  of  a  coriaceous  lemma 
and  palea  tightly  inclosing  the  thin-walled  caryopsis.  In  all  these 
cases  the  root  breaks  through  the  back  of  the  lemma  near  the  base 
by  sphtting  the  tissue  and  the  shoot  pushes  up  through  the  space 
between  the  caryopsis  and  the  lemma,  emerging  near  the  tip.  In 
Johnson-grass  {Holcus  halepensis)  the  grain  is  enveloped  by  the 
hard  glumes  and  dehcate  lemma,  sterile  lemma  and  palea.  The 
tissue  of  the  glume  appears  to  be  too  firm  to  permit  the  root  to 
penetrate,  for  it  passes  through  between  the  glumes.  The  fruit  of 
taU  oat-grass  {ArrJienathcrum  clatius)  consists  of  2  florets,  only  the 
second  of  which  is  fertile.  The  root  passes  through  the  back  of  the 
lemma  of  this  floret.  Rice  germinates  in  a  manner  different  from 
that  of  the  other  fruits  described.  The  caryopsis  is  inclosed  in  the 
much-flattened  and  keeled  lemma  and  palea.  The  shoot  breaks 
tlu-ough  the  back  of  the  lemma  at  the  base  and  appears  first  as  a 
pointed  organ  at  the  base  of  which  later  emerge  the  roots. 

175.  Propagation  by  bulblets. — Some  grasses  of  high 
latitudes  and  altitudes  produce,  in  the  inflorescence, 
bulblets  in  place  of  ordinary  spikelets.  Bulblets  are 
spikelets  or  portions  of  spikelets,  in  which  the  floral 
bracts  have  been  transformed  into  small  leaves,  the  whole 
becoming  a  vegetative  shoot.  These  bulblets,  which  may 
be  provided  with  young  roots,  fall  off  and  produce  new 
plants.  A  number  of  species  may,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, produce  bulblets,  while  a  few  do  this  uniformly  in 
certain  regions  {Poa  hulhosa  L.).  Certain  species  (as  Poa 
alpina  L.)  are  ordinarily  sexual  but  in  extremes  of  alti- 
tudes and  latitudes  are  asexual. 

PLANT   SOCIETIES 

176.  So  far  as  concerns  their  adaptation  to  environ- 
ment based  upon  condition  of  moisture,  grasses  may  be 


140  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

divided  into  four  groups — mesophytes,  xerophytes,  halo- 
phytes  and  hydrophytes.  It  should  be  understood  that 
there  is  no  sharp  Hne  between  these  groups.  There  are 
transitions  in  all  directions.  It  is  impossible  to  define 
in  exact  terms  the  limits  that  circumscribe  these  groups. 
One  cannot,  except  approximately,  say  that  plants 
growing  upon  soil  containing  certain  definite  limits  of 
moisture  shall  be  classed  as  mesophytes  and  that  between 
other  limits  the  plants  shall  be  called  xerophytes.  Many 
other  conditions  modify  the  effect.  One  must  judge 
rather  by  the  sum  total  of  the  effect  upon  the  plant,  that  is, 
the  reaction  to  environment.  If  the  plant  shows  general 
adaptations  that  aid  it  in  resisting  loss  of  moisture,  the 
plant  is  a  xerophyte.  However,  it  often  happens  that  the 
soil  may  contain  sufficient  moisture  a  part  of  the  time  and 
a  deficiency  at  other  times.  So  far  as  the  plant  is  con- 
cerned the  critical  period  is  the  growing  season.  A  beech 
tree  is  a  mesophyte  in  summer  and  a  xerophyte  in  winter. 
In  the  summer  there  is  sufficient  moisture  for  its  broad 
thin  leaf -blades.  In  winter  the  ground  freezes,  the 
branches  and  twigs  may  freeze,  moisture  can  not  be  sup- 
plied to  so  great  a  surface,  and  the  surface  is  reduced  by 
casting  off  the  leaves.  Nevertheless  the  beech  is  classed 
as  a  mesophyte.  On  the  other  hand,  desert  regions  are 
visited  occasionally  by  heavy  rains  and  for  a  short  time 
the  soil  may  be  saturated.  But  the  plants  of  these  regions 
are  called  xerophytes,  because  these  periods  of  abundance 
are  not  of  sufficient  length  to  effect  the  general  adaptations 
of  the  plants. 

177.  Mesoph)rtes. — As  the  name  indicates,  this  group 
includes  those  grasses  that  thrive  under  medium  condi- 
tions of  moisture.  They  are  not  water  plants  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  other  hand  are  not  especially  adapted  to 


ECOLOGY  141 

resist  evaporation.  They  include  most  grasses  of  swamps, 
bogs,  moist  land  along  water-courses,  and  the  inhabitants 
of  forest  and  woodland.  Grasses  that  become  weeds  in 
cultivated  and  waste  soil  usually  belong  to  the  meso- 
phytes.  In  general  they  have  flat  blades  and  will  endure 
considerable  alternation  of  conditions  between  a  large 
amount  of  soil  moisture  and  a  moderate  amount  of 
drought. 

Familiar  examples  of  mesophytes  are  the  common  cultivated 
grasses,  such  as  corn,  the  small  grains,  sorghum,  sugar-cane,  the 
meadow  grasses,  common  annual  weeds,  such  as  crab-grass  and  fox- 
tail, and  the  shade  grasses  of  the  tropical  forests. 

Certain  areas  of  open  grass  land  include  a  mesophytic 
flora.  Natural  meadow  land  contains  too  much  moisture 
to  be  classed  as  prairie.  Grass  land  which  contains  an 
excess  of  water,  but  not  enough  to  support  strictly  water 
plants,  may  be  classed  as  bog,  swamp,  marsh  or  slough. 
The  tundra  of  northern  regions  includes  a  large  grass 
element.  It  is  open  wet  land — wet  because  the  subsoil  is 
frozen  and  there  is  poor  drainage.  At  high  altitudes  are 
found  mountain  meadows  that  support  a  mesophytic 
flora,  even  though  the  soil  be  dry,  the  low  temperature 
being  the  determining  factor. 

178.  Xerophytes. — These  are  grasses  that  are  fitted 
to  endure  soil  conditions  in  which  the  moisture  content 
is  deficient.  They  are,  in  consequence  of  this  deficiency 
provided  with  especial  adaptations  to  resist  evaporation. 
In  xerophytes  belonging  to  other  families  of  plants,  water- 
storing  organs  are  common,  but  among  grasses  this 
adaptation  is  rare. 

Panicum  bulbosum  H.  B.  K.,  of  New  Mexico,  is  provided  with 
a  corm  which  probably  acts  as  a  storehouse  of  moisture.  The  corms 
at  the  base  of  some  species  of  MeHca,  and  the  chain  of  corms  in 


142  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Arrhenatherum  elatius  bulbosum  (Par.  241)  may  serve  for  storage, 
although  the  plant  last  mentioned  is  not  a  xerophyte. 

In  general,  xerophytic  grasses  have  become  adapted 
to  their  surroundings  by  the  production  of  impervious 
epidermis  or  of  mechanical  tissue  in  leaves  and  stems  and 
by  fine  foliage.  Roll-leaves,  described  in  a  preceding 
paragraph  (Par.  139),  are  common.  The  foliage  of  xero- 
phji^ic  grasses  is  nearly  always  firm  and  hard  from  the 
excessive  development  of  sclerenchyma  fibers  and  other 
mechanical  tissue  and  the  relative  lack  of  soft  parenchy- 
matous tissue.  The  stomata  are  in  protected  places,  in 
the  longitudinal  furrows  of  the  blades  or  on  the  inside  of 
rolled  blades.  All  these  structures  tend  to  retard  evapo- 
ration and  prevent  the  loss  of  water  which  cannot  readily 
be  obtained  from  the  dry  soil. 

There  are  four  chief  habitats  where  xerophytic  grasses 
may  be  found, — prairie,  sandy  soil,  rocks  and  desert. 

179.  Prairie  is  open  grass  land  where  the  soil  is  deficient 
in  moisture.  If  open  grass  land  occurs  upon  soil  in  which 
there  is  no  deficiency  of  moisture  it  may  be  swamp,  tundra 
or  mountain  meadow  as  indicated  under  a  preceding 
paragraph  (Par.  177).  Prairies  are  found  as  isolated 
areas  interspersed  through  regions  that  are  chiefly  occupied 
by  a  mesophytic  flora,  as  the  eastern  united  States.  In 
Iowa  and  Missouri,  they  occupy  large  areas,  with  wood- 
land interspersed.  A  vast  prairie  extending  from  Texas 
northward  far  into  Canada  is  called  the  Great  Plains. 
Similar  regions  in  western  Asia  are  called  steppes  and  in 
South  America  are  called  pampas  and  llanos.  In  Central 
America  and  in  some  other  countries,  they  are  known  as 
savannahs  (or  savannas).  The  dominant  plants  of  these 
prairies  and  plains  are  grasses.  In  general,  there  are 
many  species  producing  rhizomes  or  stolons  so  that  much 


ECOLOGY  143 

of  the  surface  is  covered  by  a  sod.  Stipas  and  various 
Andropogonese,  especially  Andropogon,  are  often  dominant 
species.  Over  much  of  the  Great  Plains,  a  single  species, 
Bulbilis  dadyloides  (buffalo-grass)  or  this  combined  with 
Bouteloua  gracilis  (grama -grass)  gives  a  characteristic 
aspect  to  the  vegetation.  Those  grasses  often  called 
"short  grasses"  may  occupy  vast  areas  almost  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  species  of  plants.  Farther  south,  the 
Bulbilis  is  replaced  by  Hilaria  cenchroides  (curly  mes- 
quite).  This  portion  of  the  Great  Plains  is  known  locally 
as  the  ''short-grass  country"  because  the  uniform  com- 
pact curly  growth  is  only  a  few  inches  high.  The  regions 
described  above  are  known  as  semi-arid  regions. 

180.  Sandy  soil. — Plants  characteristic  of  sandy  soil 
are  sometimes  called  psammophytes.  The  best  illustration 
of  this  kind  of  xerophytes  may  be  observed  upon  sand- 
dunes.  These  are  found  along  sandy  seacoasts  of  temper- 
ate regions,  the  sandy  shores  of  lakes,  along  the  banks  of 
rivers,  especially  in  arid  regions,  and  in  dry  interior  regions 
far  removed  from  bodies  of  water.  Such  areas  are  found 
in  the  United  States  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  especi- 
ally on  Cape  Cod,  along  the  Great  Lakes,  especially  the 
eastern  and  southern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  along 
certain  large  rivers,  such  as  the  Columbia  east  of  the 
Cascades,  and  the  Arkansas  in  western  Kansas.  Large 
areas  of  sand  hills  are  found  in  interior  regions  such  as 
central  Nebraska. 

181.  Sand-dunes  may  be  so  far  removed  from  water 
or  in  such  rapid  motion  that  no  vegetation  can  be  sup- 
ported. Dunes  near  the  sea,  though  completely  dried 
out  at  the  surface  may  be  moist  beneath  on  account  of 
the  drawing  of  water  from  below  by  capillary  attraction. 
Many  grasses  of   sand-dunes   produce  a  well-developed 


144  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

system  of  rhizomes.  These  do  not  form  a  sod  as  the  soil 
is  too  poor  in  plant-food  to  support  plants  sufficiently 
near  together.  Representative  species  are  Ammophila 
arenaria  and  Spartina  patens  (Ait.)  Muhl,  along  the  sea- 
coast,  Calaniovilfa  longifolia  (Hook.)  Hack,  in  the  Great 
Plains,  Elymus  flavescens  Scribn.  &  Smith  in  the  Colum- 
bia River  basin  and  Elymus  arenarius  L.  of  the  Alaskan 
seacoast.  The  first  mentioned,  Ammophila  arenaria, 
called  beach-  or  marram-grass,  is  a  typical  sand-binder. 
It  not  only  produces  widely  extending  rhizomes  which 
may  reach  great  depth,  but  the  culms  push  upward  as  the 
sand  drifts  around  them.    (Par.  93). 

182.  Pine-barrens. — Sandy  regions  in  which  there  is 
a  sparse  forest-cover  represent  xerophytic  conditions, 
though  less  marked  than  those  of  dune  areas.  The  pine- 
barrens  of  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  are  typical  of  these 
regions.  They  are  mostly  level  areas  covered  with  open 
pine  woods.  Southward  they  include  the  turpentine 
country,  and  in  Florida  they  become  the  "high  pine  land" 
and  the  still  more  xerophytic  "scrub."  These  regions  are 
the  home  of  the  smaller  species  of  Panicum  and  many 
other  peculiar  grasses. 

183.  Rocks. — On  account  of  the  impervious  sub- 
stratum, plants  growing  upon  rocks  are  insufficiently 
provided  with  water  unless  near  some  source  of  supply, 
such  as  spray  from  a  waterfall,  springs,  melting  snow  and 
the  like.  Hence  xerophytic  grasses  may  occur  in  a  meso- 
phytic  region.  Such  grasses  are  bunch-grasses  as  rhizomes 
do  not  develop  under  these  conditions. 

184.  Deserts. — Regions  in  which  the  deficiency  in  the 
water-content  of  the  soil  is  greater  than  in  prairie  and  in 
which  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  very  low,  are 
called  deserts,  or  arid  regions.    Deserts  owe  their  aridity 


ECOLOGY  145 

primarily  to  scanty  rainfall  rather  than  to  soil  conditions, 
as  in  the  case  of  rocks  and  sand-dunes.  They  are  so 
situated  that  the  prevailing  winds  have  been  previously 
deprived  of  their  moisture  by  passing  over  mountains. 
The  chief  desert  region  of  the  United  States  is  found  in 
the  Great  Basin  from  the  plains  of  the  Columbia  in  eastern 
Washington  southward  through  Arizona  to  the  Mexican 
plateau.  The  aridity  increases  southward  and  reaches 
its  maximum  in  the  Colorado  Desert  of  southeastern 
California.  The  annual  rainfall  is  less  than  20  inches, 
often  less  than  10  inches.  On  account  of  the  higher  tem- 
perature and  longer  summers  the  aridity  increases 
southward  even  though  the  rainfall  may  remain  the 
same.  Other  desert  regions  are  found  along  the 
Pacific  slope  in  Peru  and  northern  Chih,  in  the  interioi' 
of  Australia  and  Asia,  and  the  Sahara  Desert  of  north 
Africa. 

The  perennial  grasses  of  deserts  are  for  the  most  part 
bunch-grasses  and  on  account  of  the  scarcity  of  moisture 
the  bunches  are  widely  scattered.  In  contradistinction 
to  the  other  xerophytic  regions,  deserts  are  inhabited  by 
several  species  of  annual  grasses.  Such  grasses  are  adapted 
to  the  distribution  of  the  rainfall.  This  usually  comes  in 
occasional  heavy  showers.  Immediately  after  such  a 
shower  the  seeds  of  annuals  germinate,  develop  rapidly 
and  mature  seed  before  the  effects  of  the  shower  have 
passed  away.  This  adaptation  to  seasonal  moisture  is 
especially  marked  if  the  showers  are  concentrated  within 
a  certain  period  of  the  year  forming  a  rainy  season.  In 
southern  Arizona  there  are  usually  two  such  rainy  sea- 
sons, one  in  winter  and  one  in  summer,  with  a  correspond- 
ing growth  of  annuals,  many  of  them  grasses,  after  each 
period  of  rainfall.  In  all  desert  regions  the  grasses  tend 
J 


146  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

to  collect  in  depressions  or  drainage  basins  where  the 
water  from  showers  remains  longest. 

185.  Haloph5rtic  grasses  are  those  that  grow  in  soil 
containing  an  excess  of  mineral  salts.  In  general  they  are 
known  as  salt-marsh  plants.  They  are  found  in  the  salt- 
marshes  of  the  seacoast  and  of  interior  alkali  regions. 
The  soil  that  supports  halophytes  may  not  be  lacking  in 
water,  but  the  presence  of  soluble  salts  increases  the 
density  of  the  soil-water  and  hence  renders  it  less  easily 
absorbed  by  the  root-system  of  the  plant.  Although 
growing  in  water  or  wet  soil,  the  plants  have  difficulty  in 
obtaining  the  necessary  water-supply  and  consequently, 
to  avoid  injury  from  loss  of  water  through  evaporation, 
xerophytic  characters  have  been  developed.  Among  these 
characters  may  be  mentioned  harshness  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  mechanical  tissue,  roll-leaves,  and  succulence. 
Familiar  examples  of  halophytic  grasses  are  Spartina 
glabra  Muhl.  of  the  Atlantic  coast  salt-marshes  and 
Distichlis  spicata  (L.)  Greene  of  the  interior  alkali  plains. 

186.  Hydroph3rtes  are  water  plants.  They  grow  in 
the  water,  either  submerged  or  from  soil  that  is  perma- 
nently saturated.  Only  a  few  grasses,  such  as  Hydrochloa 
caroliniensis  Beauv.,  are  nearly  or  quite  submerged.  But 
there  are  many  that  inhabit  permanent  fresh-water  or 
brackish  marshes.  To  this  group  belong  Zizania  palustris 
L.  (Indian  rice),  Zizaniopsis  miliacea  (Michx.)  Doll  & 
Asch.,  Paspalum  dissectum  L.  and  P.  reperis  Berg.  Pani- 
cum  elephantipes  Nees  and  Echinochloa  sabulicola  Nees 
of  the  American  tropics  are  succulent  hydrophytes,  grow- 
ing in  several  feet  of  water.  Paspalum  repens,  of  Pan- 
ama, forms  long  runners  that  float  upon  the  surface  of 
the  water,  buoyed  up  by  their  inflated  sheaths. 

Swamp-grasses  as   distinguished  from  marsh-grasses 


ECOLOGY  147 

are  usually  to  be  classed  with  mesophytes,  because  they 
are  subject  to  much  fluctuation  in  the  water-supply.  The 
soil  may  be  saturated  at  one  time  and  moderately  dry 
at  another  time.  Swamp-grasses  often  show  xerophytic 
characters,  especially  roll-leaves.  During  the  early  part 
of  the  growing  season,  particularly  in  the  North,  the  air 
at  least  during  the  day  is  warm  while  the  roots  are  im- 
mersed in  the  cold  substratum.  There  is  thus  danger  of 
the  loss  of  water  by  evaporation  from  the  leaves  faster 
than  the  cold  sluggish  root-system  can  supply  it;  hence 
the  presence  of  roll-leaves. 

GEOGRAPHICAL   DISTRIBUTION 

187.  Geographical  distribution  of  plants  is  their 
range  or  dissemination  over  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  present  distribution  is  the  result  of  causes  which 
have  acted  through  an  indefinitely  long  period  of  time  and 
often  over  areas  of  continental  extent.  Every  species  of 
plant  occupies  its  present  area  by  virtue  of  its  ability  to 
adapt  itself  to  its  environment.  If  the  environmental 
conditions  change,  the  plants  concerned  must  become 
adapted  to  the  new  conditions,  or  they  are  forced  to  mi- 
grate, or,  failing  in  this,  they  become  extinct.  It  is  not 
the  purpose  here  to  discuss  the  causes  that  have  brought 
about  these  changes,  but  merely  to  outline  the  present 
distribution  of  the  grass  family.  For  a  further  discussion 
the  student  is  referred  to  the  works  dealing  with  the 
evolution  of  plants,  especially  those  of  Darwin,  Wallace, 
Hooker  and  Gray. 

Darwin:  "Origin  of  Species."  Wallace:  "Darwinism,"  "Island 
Life,"  "The  World  of  Life,"  and  other  works.  Hooker:  "Distri- 
bution of  Arctic  Plants."   Gray:  "Collected  Essays." 


148  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

188.  Distribution  of  grasses. — As  stated  in  a  preceding 
paragraph  (Par.  121),  the  grasses  are  represented  in  all 
parts  of  the  earth's  land-surface  where  the  conditions  are 
suitable  for  the  growth  of  flowering  plants,  from  sea-level 
to  the  snow-line  on  the  high  mountains,  from  Greenland 
to  the  antarctic  continent,  from  swamp  to  desert,  and 
from  the  deep  forest  to  the  clefts  of  the  boldest  cliff.  The 
great  tribes  Andropogoneae  and  Panicese  predominate  in 
the  warmer  regions,  while  the  Agrostideae  and  Festuceae 
predominate  in  the  cooler  regions.  Space  will  not  permit 
of  detailed  references  to  the  distribution  of  genera  and 
species.  Small  genera  are  often  much  restricted  in  their 
area  while  large  genera  are  usually  distributed  over  a 
wide  area.  The  great  genera  Andropogon,  Panicum, 
Paspalum  and  Eragrostis  are  found  throughout  the  tropics 
of  both  hemispheres.  Muhlenbergia  and  Bouteloua,  also 
large  genera,  are  confined  to  the  American  continent  and 
are  especially  well  represented  on  the  Mexican  plateau. 
Poa  and  Festuca  are  found  in  all  continents,  but  mostly 
in  the  cooler  regions,  extending  to  the  northern  and 
southern  limit  of  vegetation,  and  well  represented  in 
alpine  regions,  even  of  the  high  mountains  of  the  tropics. 

189.  Distribution  of  species. — Species  also  vary  greatly 
as  to  the  extent  of  the  area  in  which  they  are  found. 
Certain  agressive  species  known  as  weeds  are  now  wide- 
spread over  extensive  areas  of  both  hemispheres.  Crab- 
grass  (Syntherisma  sanguinalis)  and  goose-grass  {Eleusine 
indica  (L.)  Gaertn.)  are  familiar  examples.  Heteropogon 
coniortus  (L.)  Beauv.  is  an  example  of  a  similarly  wide- 
spread species  which  is  native  throughout  its  area.  Many 
species  of  the  seashore  and  of  marshes  are  likewise  exten- 
sively distributed.  Spartina  glabra  Muhl.  and  Ammophila 
arenaria  arc  found  on  the  seacoast  of  Europe  and  America, 


I.IBRAKY  OV 
C.  STAT£  COLLBCffi 


ECOLOGY  149 

the  one  in  salt-marshes  the  other  upon  sand-dunes. 
Many  species  have  a  circumpolar  distribution*  and  often 
extend  southward  along  the  mountain  ranges.  Poa 
alpina,  found  at  sea-level  within  the  arctic  circle,  extends 
southward  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Colorado  where  it 
is  found  on  alpine  summits. 

190.  Circumpolar  distribution. — Those  species  that 
are  indigenous  to  North  America  and  Eurasia  usually 
show  evidence,  by  a  present  circumpolar  distribution, 
such  as  that  of  Poa  alpina  and  many  others,  of  a  common 
origin  in  polar  regions;  or  they  suggest  the  probability 
of  such  distribution  in  the  past.  During  a  preceding 
warm  epoch,  when  vegetation  zones  lay  farther  north 
than  now,  many  species  were  circumpolar  that  afterward 
were  driven  south  by  the  succeeding  ice  period.  These 
species  survived  only  where  they  found  conditions  suited 
to  their  requirements.  Some  were  driven  along  the  moun- 
tain ranges;  others  were  driven  along  the  coastal  regions. 
As  the  climates  of  the  northeastern  coasts  of  North 
America  and  Asia  are  similar,  there  are  many  cases  where 
the  same  or  similar  species  of  plants  inhabit  both 
regions. t  Among  grasses  one  notes  the  genera  Diarrhena 
and  Zizania,  each  represented  by  similar  species  in  the 
two  regions  and  not  found  elsewhere. 

191.  Generic  distribution. — Sometimes  large  genera 
show  a  special  development  in  certain  areas  although 
there  may  be  scattering  species  in  regions  remote  from 
the  areas  of  greatest  development.  The  genera  Bouteloua 
and  Muhlenbergia,  mentioned  above,  are  represented  by 
numerous  species  on  the  tableland  of  Mexico,  although 
certain  species  of  the  former  are  found  as  far  south  as 

♦Hooker,  "Distribution  of  Arctic  Plants." 

tGray,  "Analogy  between  the  Flora  of  Japan  and  that  of  the  United  States." 


150  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Argentina,  and  of  the  latter  as  far  north  as  New  England, 
and  west  even  to  eastern  Asia.  The  subgenus  Dichan- 
thelium  of  the  immense  genus  Panicum  is  represented 
by  nearly  100  species  in  southeastern  United  States,  but 
there  are  a  few  species  extending  to  the  state  of  Washing- 
ton, and  others  through  the  West  Indies  and  Mexico  to 
northern  South  America.  Danthonia,  with  over  100 
species,  centers  in  South  Africa,  but  several  species  are 
found  in  America  and  other  countries. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
TAXONOMY  OR  CLASSIFICATION 

Underlying  all  present  systems  of  classification  of 
living  organisms  is  the  doctrine  of  evolution,  that  all 
organisms  are  descended  from  other  more  or  less  dis- 
similar organisms  and  that  in  the  course  of  such  descent 
there  is  an  inherent  tendency  to  vary.  Classification  is 
an  attempt  to  group  organisms  in  a  manner  that  shall 
represent,  as  nearly  as  our  knowledge  permits,  actual 
genetic  relationships. 

192.  Species. — The  size  and  limits  of  the  proposed 
groups  are  influenced  by  convenience.  The  unit  of  bio- 
logical classification  is  the  species,  a  term  however  which  is 
difficult  to  define.  A  species  includes  all  those  individuals 
that  show  as  much  resemblance  to  each  other  as  they 
might  be  expected  to  show  if  they  were  all  known  to  be 
descended  from  a  common  and  comparatively  recent 
ancestor.  As  the  genetic  history  of  the  individuals  is  not 
known,  the  grouping  into  species  is  an  expression  of  the 
opinion  of  the  biologist,  and  his  opinion  is  based  upon 
judgment  and  experience.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that 
a  species  is  a  taxonomic  idea*  and  is  not  an  entity  the 
existence  of  which  can  be  proved.  For  this  reason, 
taxonomists  often  disagree  as  to  the  limits  of  species. 
The  more  experience  a  botanist  has  had  with  plants, 
especially  with  living  plants  in  their  native  habitat,  the 

*"The  name  itself  is  but  the  expression  of  a  taxonomic  idea."  Greene, 
"Landmarks  of  Botanical  History,"  p.  122. 

(151) 


152  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

more  may  his  judgment  be  trusted  when  defining  the 
Umits  of  species  with  which  he  is  famiUar,  and  the  more 
nearly  should  his  taxonomic  ideas  approach  the  truth. 
The  truth  for  which  the  taxonomist  seeks  is  a  knowledge 
of  genetic  relationships;  the  grouping  of  organisms  into 
species,  genera  and  other  divisions  is  a  convenience  which 
is  intended  as  nearly  as  may  be  to  express  this  truth. 
In  the  ever-diverging  lines  of  descent,  certain  groups  of 
individuals  have  been  cut  off,  as  it  were,  from  their  allies, 
so  that  in  these  cases  the  species  of  the  taxonomist  prob- 
ably does  express  the  truth.  In  other  cases  the  groups 
are  in  process  of  formation  and  separation,  and  are  not 
actually  distinct.  It  is  here  that  the  taxonomist  meets  his 
greatest  difficulties.  Even  with  complete  knowledge,  his 
taxonomic  ideas  can  be  no  more  distinct  than  are  the 
groups  as  they  exist  in  nature.  In  proportion  to  his  lack 
of  knowledge  is  the  probability  that  his  taxonomic  ideas 
fail  to  represent  the  truth.  It  follows,  then,  that  a 
classification  submitted  by  a  botanist  is  accepted  by  his 
co-workers  in  proportion  to  their  faith  in  his  judgment  and 
their  knowledge  of  his  experience.  The  members  of  a 
complex  group  of  allied  species  may  have  been  defined 
and  their  limits  placed  with  approximate  accuracy  and 
yet  it  may  be  impossible  definitely  to  refer  every  individual 
to  its  proper  species.  According  to  the  degree  of  divergence 
of  allied  species  in  their  descent  from  a  common  origin, 
there  are  a  greater  or  less  number  of  intermediate  indi- 
viduals. The  existence  of  individuals  intermediate  between 
two  species  should  not  invahdate  those  species;  rather 
they  emphasize  the  fact  that  species  do  not  exist  in  nature, 
that  they  are  ideas  according  to  which  most  of  the  indi- 
viduals may  be  classified. 

193.  Genera. — A  genus  is  a  group  of  species  that  are 


TAXONOMY  OR  CLASSIFICATION  153 

thought  to  be  closely  related  genetically.  The  species  of 
a  genus  will  show  similarity  in  fundamental  characters, 
such  as  the  structure  of  the  flowers  and  fruit,  and  usually 
also  a  similarity  in  habit,  or  general  aspect. 

Familiar  genera  are  the  oaks,  the  pines,  the  asters,  the  golden- 
rods;  or,  among  grasses,  the  blue-grasses  and  the  wheat-grasses,  the 
millets  and  the  bromes. 

As  genera  do  not  exist  in  nature,  but  represent  the 
taxonomist's  ideas  as  to  groups  of  related  species,  botanists 
may  not  agree  as  to  the  limits  of  genera.  The  size  of 
genera,  that  is,  the  number  of  species  included,  is  some- 
times a  matter  of  convenience.  Conservative  botanists 
would  probably  not  recognize  Panicum  and  Paspalum  as 
separate  genera,  when  considering  the  generic  characters 
only,  but  each  group  contains  such  a  large  number  of 
species  that  the  two  have  been  kept  distinct  for  conve- 
nience. Some  species  are  so  different  from  their  nearest 
allies  that  they  cannot  be  consistently  grouped  with 
other  species.  Such  a  species  stands  as  the  sole  rep- 
resentative of  its  genus,  and  the  genus  to  which  it  belongs 
is  called  a  monotypic  genus.  It  not  infrequently  happens 
that  after  a  monotypic  genus  is  established  other  species 
are  discovered,  which  are  assigned  to  it,  and  it  ceases  to 
be  monotypic.  In  contrast  with  monotypic  genera  are 
others,  such  as  Panicum,  Andropogon  and  Poa,  with  hun- 
dreds of  species.  Large  genera  may  sometimes  be  con- 
veniently divided  into  smaller  groups,  such  as  subgenera 
and  sections. 

From  a  nomenclatorial  standpoint  the  term  monotypic  is  used 
to  indicate  genera  with  only  one  species  at  the  original  place  of 
publication.  Cook  suggests  the  word  haplotypic  for  such  genera. 
(Amer.  Nat.  48:311.    1914.) 


154  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

194.  The  grass  family  and  its  subdivisions. — The 
genera  of  plants  are  grouped  into  families,  and  these  into 
orders  and  higher  divisions  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
The  grass  family  is  called  Poaceae  or  Graminese,  and  this 
with  the  Cypersicegd  (sedges)  constitute  the  order  Poales 
or  Glumiflorse. 

The  term  Poales  is  used  for  the  order  in  the  "North  American 
Flora,"  the  termination  -ales  being  uniformly  added  to  a  generic 
stem  to  form  the  names  of  orders.  Glumiflorse  is  used  by  Engler 
and  Prantl  in  their  "PflanzenfamiHen."  Glumacese  is  used  by  Ben- 
tham  and  Hooker  ("Genera  Plantarum")  as  the  name  of  the  series 
that  includes  Eriocaulese,  Centrolepideae,  Restiacese,  Cyperaceae  and 
Graminese.  The  classification  here  adopted  is  in  the  main  that  of 
Bentham  and  Hooker  ("General  Plantarum")  and  of  Hackel 
("PflanzenfamiHen").  The  latter  author  will  be  followed  in  the 
eniuneration  of  the  tribes.  Although  Hackel's  classification  is  in 
some  respects  artificial,  it  is  on  the  whole  the  most  natural  arrange- 
ment yet  proposed. 

The  family  Poaceae  has  been  divided  for  convenience 
into  2  series  and  13  tribes. 

195.  The  2  series  of  tribes. — Modem  agrostologists 
usually  divide  the  genera  of  grasses  into  2  series.  The 
first  series  Panicoidese  (or  Panicacese),  the  more  highly 
developed  or  modified,  is  characterized  as  follows:  Spike- 
lets  with  1  terminal  perfect  floret  and  often  a  staminate 
or  neutral  floret  below;  an  articulation  below  the  spikelet, 
sometimes  in  the  pedicel,  sometimes  in  the  rachis,  some- 
times at  the  base  of  a  cluster  of  spikelets,  the  spikelets 

.  falling  away  at  maturity  singly  or  in  groups,  or  with 
portions  of  the  rachis;  spikelets  usually  more  or  less 
dorsally  compressed,  rarely  laterally  compressed.  The 
second  series,  Poseoideae,  is  characterized  as  follows: 
Spikelets  with  1  to  many  florets,  the  imperfect  ones 
when  present  usually  being  above;  rachilla  often  artic- 


TAXONOMY  OR  CLASSIFICATION  155 

ulated  above  the  glumes;  spikelets  usually  laterally- 
compressed. 

There  are  exceptions  to  all  these  characters.  In  some 
cases  the  exceptional  genera  are  clearly  related  to  others 
that  conform  to  the  above  definitions.  Other  genera  are 
more  or  less  anomalous  and  are  tentatively  placed  in  the 
category  to  which  they  seem  most  nearly  related.  In 
Isachne  the  lower  floret  is  perfect  and  similar  to  the 
upper,  but  it  is  evidently  allied  to  Panicum  and  hence  is 
placed  near  that  genus  in  the  first  series.  Several  genera, 
such  as  Sphenopholis,  Spartina  and  Alopecurus,  have  an 
articulation  below  the  spikelet  so  that  the  latter  falls 
from  the  pedicel,  in  which  respect  they  agree  with  the 
first  series,  but  in  most  characters  they  agree  with  the 
second  series,  in  which  they  are  placed.  In  Phalaridese 
of  Series  II  the  imperfect  florets  are  below  the  terminal 
perfect  one. 

196.  The  tribes  of  grasses. — There  are  6  tribes  in  the 
first  series  and  7  in  the  second.  The  following  key  to 
these  tribes  is  not  made  to  cover  exceptional  genera,  since 
to  do  this  for  the  sake  of  a  comparatively  few  genera 
would  make  the  keys  unnecessarily  complex. 

Series  I 

A.  Spikelets  round  or  dorsally  compressed;  hilum 

short. 

B.  Lemmas  and  palea  very  thin  and  hyaline, 

the  glumes  much  thicker. 

c.  Inflorescences  monoecious,  the  staminate 

and  pistillate  flowers  in  different  parts 

of  the  same  plant Tribe  1.  Mayde^e 

cc.  Inflorescences  not  monoecious,  usually  a  (Chap.  15). 

mixture  of   perfect  and   staminate  or 

neutral  spikelets Tribe  2.  Andropogone^ 

BB.  Lemmas    and    paleas   membranaceous    or  (Chap.  16). 

thicker,  not  thin  and  hyahne. 
c.  Lemmas  thinner  than  the  glumes. 


156  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

D.  Spikelets  falling  off  singly  or  in  groups 
from  a  continuous  rachis;  the  first 
glume  usually  larger  than  the  second. 

Tribe  3.  Nazie^ 
DD.  Spikelets   faUing  off  singly  from   the  (Par.  212). 

ultimate  branches  of  a  panicle;  first 
glume    smaller    than    the    second. 

Tribe  4.  Melinide^ 
cc.  Lemmas  thicker  than  the  glumes,  hard-  (Par.  213). 

ened Tribe  5.  Panice.e 

AA.  Spikelets  laterally  compressed;  hilum  hnear*  (Chap.  17). 

Tribe  6.  Oryze.e 

(Chap.  18). 

Semes  II 

A.  Culms  woody Tribe  13.  Bambuse^ 

AA.  Culms  herbaceous.  (Par.  270). 

B.  Spikelets  in  spikes  or  spike-like  racemes. 
c.  Spikelets   crowded    on   one  side   of   the 

rachis Tribe  10.  Chlorides 

cc.  Spikelets  on  opposite  sides  of  the  rachis.  (Chap.  22). 

Tribe  12.  Horded 
BB.  Spikelets  in  contracted  or  open  panicles.  (Chap.  24). 

c.  Spikelets  with  1  perfect  floret. 

D.  Perfect   floret   with   2   sterile  lemmas 

below Tribe    7.  Phalaride^ 

DD.  Perfect  floret  soHtary,  no  sterile  lemmas  (Chap.  19). 

below Tribe    8.  Agrostide^ 

cc.  Spikelets  with  2  or  more  florets.  (Chap.  20). 

D.  Lemmas  awned  from  the  back;  glumes 
usually  longer  than  the  first  lemma. 

Tribe    9.  Avene^ 
DD,  Lemmas  awned  from  the  tip  or  awn-  (Chap.  21). 

less Tribe  11.  Festuce^ 

(Chap.  23). 


THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  GENERA  OF  GRASSES 

197.  Hackel  recognizes  over  300  genera  of  grasses, 
and  some  writers,  including  the  author,  recognize  many 
more,  probably  400  in  all.  Only  a  few  of  the  more  im- 
portant genera  are  described  in  the  present  work,  the 
selection  being  based  upon  the  size  of  the  genus,  or  the 

*  In  Gray's  "Manual"  this  tribe  is  placed  in  Series  II  (Gray,  Man.  ed.  7,  p.  88. 
1908). 


TAXONOMY  OR  CLASSIFICATION  157 

economic  value  of  included  species.  Keys  are  given  to  all 
genera  native  or  commonly  cultivated  in  the  United 
States. 

198.  Characters  used  in  classification. — The  con- 
sensus of  botanical  opinion  is  that  genetic  relationships 
among  phanerogams  are  best  shown  by  the  structure  of 
the  flowers.  Grasses  are  no  exception  to  this  rule  and 
hence  the  classification  is  based  upon  the  structure  of  the 
spikelets.  The  preceding  key  indicates  the  characters 
used  in  classifying  the  tribes.  The  classification  appears 
to  be  somewhat  artificial,  but  nevertheless  it  brings  to- 
gether in  the  same  tribe  genera  that  are  evidently  related. 
But  it  also  in  some  cases,  separates  into  different  tribes 
genera  that  are  closely  related.  Reference  will  be  made 
to  some  of  these  cases  again  in  the  appropriate  place. 

199.  Phylogeny. — As  to  the  phylogeny  of  the  grasses, 
it  is  probable  that  the  most  primitive  existing  forms  are 
those  in  which  the  spikelet  consists  of  a  series  of  flowers 
in  the  axils  of  herbaceous  bracts.  The  simpler  genera  of 
Bambusese,  such  as  Arundinaria,  probably  represent  the 
lower  or  more  primitive  forms.  It  must  not  be  understood 
that  this  tribe  is,  as  a  whole,  less  developed  than  the  other 
tribes.  Some  genera  are  highly  developed.  There  is  good 
ground  for  believing,  however,  that  the  Bambusese  arose 
from  forms  more  primitive  than  those  that  gave  rise  to 
the  other  tribes.  The  Festucese  and  Hordese  probably'  come 
next  in  phylogenetic  development,  while  the  Andro- 
pogonese  and  Panicese  are  highly  developed.  The  exact 
relationship  of  the  various  tribes  and  the  smaller  groups 
is,  of  course,  for  the  present  largely  a  matter  of  conjecture 
and  individual  opinion.  Phylogenetic  ideas  are  expressed 
by  the  grouping  of  forms  rather  than  by  attempting  to 
trace  lines  of  descent.    We  may  group  allied  species  into 


158  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

genera  and  allied  genera  into  higher  groups  without  com- 
mitting ourselves  as  to  how  the  various  groups  came  to 
be  what  they  are.  The  modern  tendency  is  toward  a 
grouping  of  species  in  all  large  genera.  Some  of  these 
groups  are  recognized  under  the  formal  titles  of  sub- 
genera, sections  and  subsections.  But  it  is  often  con- 
venient to  form  smaller  groups  centering  around  well- 
known  or  widespread  species. 

Ascherson  and  Grabner  bring  together  closely  allied  species 
under  the  heading  Gesammtart  (Syn.  Mit.-Eur.  Fl.).  In  our  recent 
revision  of  the  North  American  Species  of  Panicum  (Contr.  U.  S. 
Xat.  Herb.  15)  these  minor  groups  or  species  were  indicated  by  the 
plural  of  the  leading  species,  e.g.,  the  allies  of  Panicum  dichotomum 
were  grouped  under  Dichotoma. 


CHAPTER  XV 

Tribe  I.     MAYDE^E 

This  tribe  is  scarcely  more  than  a  division  of  the  next 
tribe,  Andropogonea?,  from  which  it  differs  in  the  se]5a- 
ration  of  the  staminate  and  pistillate  inflorescences.  The 
structure  of  the  spikelets  in  the  2  tribes  is  similar. 

Key  to  the  Genera  of  Matde^ 

A.  Staminate  and  pistillate  spikelets  in  separate 
inflorescences,  the  former  in  a  terminal 
tassel,  the  latter  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

B.  Pistillate  spikes  distinct,  articulated Euchl^na 

BB.  Pistillate    spikes    grown    together    forming  (Par.  201). 

an  "ear". Zea  (Par.  202). 

aa.  Staminate  and  pistillate  spikelets  in  separate 
portions  of  the  same  spike,  the  pistillate 
below. 


B.  Spikes  short,  the  1-  to  2-flowered  pistillate 
portion  inclosed  in  a  bead-like  sheathing 
bract Coix  (Par.  203). 


BB.  Spikes  many-flowered,  the  pistillate  portion 
breaking  up  into  several  1-seeded  joints; 

no  bead-like  sheathing  bract Tripsactjm 

(Par.  200). 

200.  Tripsacum  L. — The  terminal  inflorescence  con- 
sists usually  of  a  cluster  of  spikes  the  lower  portions  of 
which  are  pistillate  and  the  upper  portions  staminate. 
The  pistillate  portion  consists  of  a  series  of  joints  which 
disarticulate  at  maturity  forming  bony  cylindrical  or 
angled  seed-like  parts  made  up  of  the  thick  axis  and  an 
imbedded  spikelet.  The  spikelet  consists  of  a  hard  first 
glume  which  closes  the  spikelet  within  the  joint  of  the 
rachis,  a  thinner  second  glume,  a  sterile  lemma  with  a 
(159) 


160 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


palea,  and  a  fertile  floret,  the  latter  all  hyaline.  The 
staminate  spikelets  are  in  pairs  on  a  slender  rachis.  The 
spikelet  consists  of  2  coriaceous  glumes  and  2  florets  with 
stamens,  the  lemmas  and  paleas  being  hyaline.  Besides 
the  terminal  inflorescence  there  are  usually  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves  others  that  may  be  reduced  to  a  single  spike. 
One  species,  T.  dactyloides  L.,  a  coarse  perennial  found 
through  eastern  and  southern  United  States,  is  an  excel- 
lent forage  grass,  sometimes  called  gama-grass.  A  few 
other  species  are  found  in  IVIexico. 
201.  Euchlaena  Schrad.—Teo- 
sinte.  The  staminate  flowers  are 
in  a  terminal  panicle  while  the 
pistillate  are  in  spikes  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves.  The  staminate 
spikelets  are  similar  to  those  of 
Tripsacum.  The  spike  of  pistillate 
spikelets  breaks  up  at  maturity 
into  rhomboidal  seed-like  joints. 
The  styles  are  very  long  and 
protrude  from  the  top  of  the 
inclosing  leaf -sheath.  The  best 
known  species  is  E.  mexicana 
Schrad.  (Fig.  11),  a  native  of 
Mexico.  This  is  a  coarse  annual 
resembling  corn,  cultivated  in  the 
southern  United  States  as  a  for- 
age plant,  chiefly  for  green  fodder. 
There  are  1  or  2  other  species  in  Mexico  and  Central 
America.  A  hybrid  between  Euchlaena  and  Tripsacum  is 
described  by  Collins  and  Kempton.  The  pollen  was  fur- 
nished by  a  variety  of  Euchlaena  from  Durango,  Mexico 
(Journ.  Wash.   Acad.  Sci.  4:  114.   1914). 


Fig.  11.  Euchlaena  mexi- 
cana. Portion  of  plant  reduced; 
a  pistillate  inflorescence,  X  l^, 
and  4  fertile  spikelets  XI  (U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agroat.  Bull. 
No.  20). 


MAY  DEM  161 

202.  Zea  L. — Indian  corn,  maize.  This  genus  is 
represented  only  by  the  cultivated  maize  {Z.  mays  L.), 
and  is  not  known  in  the  wild  state.  There  are  several 
well-marked  varieties,  such  as  dent,  pop  and  sweet,  which 
are  thought  by  some  to  be  distinct  species.  Like  the  pre- 
ceding genus,  the  staminate  inflorescence  is  separate  from 
the  pistillate.  The  former  is  a  terminal  panicle  called  the 
tassel  and  the  latter,  a  thick  spike  surrounded  by  leafy 
bracts  or  husks,  is  called  the  ear.  The  staminate  spikelets 
are  in  pairs  on  the  rachis,  1  sessile  and  the  other  pediceled, 
each  2-flowered,  the  thin  lemmas  and  paleas  being  shorter 
than  the  firm  glumes.  The  ear  consists  of  several  close 
rows  of  pistillate  spikelets  upon  a  greatly  thickened  axis, 
the  cob.  The  spikelet  consists  of  2  glumes,  a  .sterile  lemma 
with  a  small  palea,  and  a  fertile  lemma  and  palea.  All 
these  bracts  remain  at  the  base  of  the  mature  grain  as 
coriaceous  chaff  on  the  cob.  The  numerous  single  styles 
protrude  from  the  ear  and  form  the  "silk."  There  is  a 
potential  ear  in  every  leaf-axil  but  usually  only  one  de- 
velops into  a  perfect  ear.  In  one  variety,  called  pod-corn, 
each  kernel  is  enveloped  in  the  elongated  floral  bracts. 

There  has  been  much  speculation  as  to  the  origin  of  corn.  Some 
have  thought  that  it  has  been  developed  from  Teosinte,  others  that 
the  original  wild  form  has  become  extinct.  It  is  more  likely  that  it  is 
a  hybrid  between  Teosinte  and  an  unknown  or  extinct  species  re- 
sembhng  pod-corn.  (Collins  "The  Origin  of  Maize,"  Journ.  Wash. 
Acad.  Sci.  2:520.    1912.) 

Corn  has  been  cultivated  from  prehistoric  times  by 
the  early  races  of  American  aborigines,  from  Peru  to 
middle  North  America,  and  is  now  cultivated  throughout 
the  world  in  warmer  regions  for  food  for  man  and  do- 
mestic animals.  The  chief  varieties  are  dent,  the  common 
commercial  field  variety,  flint,  formerly  common  in  the 

K 


162 


A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


northern  states,  sweet  and  pop.   A  starchy  variety  called 
flour  corn  is  grown  in  South  America  and  pod-corn  is 

occasionally  cultivated  as 
a  curiosity.  A  form  with 
variegated  leaves  is  culti- 
vated in  gardens  for  orna- 
ment. (For  further  notes 
classification  see  Mont- 
gomery, ''The  Corn  Crops" 
15.    1913.) 

203.  Coix  L.— Only  1  species 
common,  the  Job's-tears  (C 
lacryma-Jobi     L.)     (Fig.     12), 
which   is    cultivated   for  orna- 
ment and  escaped  as  a  weed  in 
the   tropics.    It  is  a  handsome 
broad-leaved  species,  reaching  a 
height   of    4   to   6    feet.      The 
inflorescences    are    several    on 
each  plant,  each  being  at  the 
end  of  a  long  peduncle  on  the  end 
of  which  is  an  urn-shaped  indurated 
bead-like  bract,  supporting  the  base 
of  the  simple  spike,  pistillate  at  base 
and  staminate  above.    The  pistillate 
portion  consists  of  1  fertile  spikelet 
with  1  or  2  sterile  ones,  inclosed  in 
the    urn-shaped    bract,    the    2-cleft 
style  and  the  tips  of  the  sterile  spike- 
lets   protruding    through   the    open- 
ing at  the  top.    The  glumes  of  the 
fertile    spikelet    are    broad,    hyaline 
with  membranaceous  tips,  the  lemmas 


Fig.  12.  Coix  lacryma- 
Jobi.  Inflorescence  show- 
ing several  pistillate  beads, 
the  staminate  spikes  pro- 
truding, X%. 


MAYDE^  163 

and  palea  delicately  hyaline.  The  staminate  upper  por- 
tion of  the  inflorescence  also  protrudes  from  the  opening 
for  an  irich  or  two.  This  consists  of  a  few  spikelets  in 
pairs,  the  structure  being  similar  to  that  described  above 
for  the  other  genera.  At  maturity  the  staminate  portion 
of  the  inflorescence  disarticulates,  the  sheathing  bract 
containing  the  seed  forms  an  ivory-like  ovoid  fruit,  from 
white  to  bluish  gray  in  color,  that  separates  by  a  joint 
from  the  peduncle.  These  fruits  are  used  as  beads  for 
ornament. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
Tribe  II.    ANDROPOGONE^ 

This  great  tribe  is  represented  in  the  warmer  regions 
of  both  hemispheres  but  is  absent  from  the  arctic  and 
alpine  regions  and  is  poorly  represented  in  the  cooler 
temperate  regions.  The  spikelets  are  usually  arranged  in 
pairs  at  each  joint  of  a  spike-like  raceme,  1  sessile,  the 
other  pedicelled.  The  rachis  of  the  raceme  is  usually 
articulated  and  breaks  up  at  maturity  into  joints.  The 
racemes  are  often  woolly  with  long  hairs  and  may  be 
arranged  in  a  compound  inflorescence.  Sometimes  the 
racemes  are  reduced  to  the  terminal  joint  of  3  spikelets, 
in  which  case  the  compound  inflorescence  is  a  panicle, 
as  in  Johnson-grass.  The  spikelets  nearly  always  consist 
of  2  glumes,  at  least  1  of  which  is  firm  or  indurated,  a 
sterile  lemma,  and  a  terminal  fertile  floret.  The  bracts 
above  the  glumes  are  usually  thin  and  hyaline.  The  fertile 
lemma  often  bears  a  bent  or  twisted  awn.  Grasses  of  this 
kind  are  commonly  abundant  on  savannas  and  plains  in 
the  tropics  and  in  prairie  regions  of  the  United  States,  and 
many  species  are  useful  forage  grasses.  There  are  about 
50  genera  in  the  tribe  but  only  a  few  contain  species  of 
interest  to  Americans.  Of  the  5  sub-tribes,  only  2  will  be 
mentioned  here. 

Key  to  the  Genera  of  Andropogone^ 

A.  Axis  of  the  spike  glabrous,  much  thickened, 
with  excavations  holding  the  spikelets;  fertile 
lemma  awnless. 

(164) 


ANDROPOGONE^  165 

B.  First  glume  flattened  or  somewhat  convex. 

Florida M  anisuris. 

BB.  First    glume    hard    and    globular,    pitted. 

Florida  to  Arizona Rytilix. 

4.  Axis  of  the  spike  or  raceme  hairy,  not  exca- 
vated nor  greatly  thickened;  fertile  lemma 
usually  awned. 
B.  Spikeiets  all  alike. 

c.  Axis  of  racemes  continuous. 

D.  Racemes  in  a  narrow  spike-like  panicle; 

spikeiets  awnless.    Florida Imperata. 

DD.  Racemes  in  a  broad  fan-shaped  panicle; 

spikeiets  awned Miscanthus 

cc.  Axis  of  racemes  breaking  up  into  joints;         (Par.  204). 
racemes  in  a  much-branched  panicle  on 
a  main  axis. 

D.  Spikeiets  awned Erianthus 

(Par.  206). 

DD.  Spikeiets  awnless Saccharum 

BB.  Spikeiets  not  all  alike,  one  of  the  pair  perfect,  (Par.  205). 

the  other  staminate,  neutral  or  reduced  to 
a  pedicel. 
c.  Fertile    spikelet    pedicelled,   with    a  long 
plumose    awn;    sterile    spikelet    nearly 

sessile,  awnless Trachypogon. 

cc.  Fertile    spikelet    sessile;    sterile    spikelet 
pedicelled;  axis  articulate. 
D.  Spikeiets  awnless;  raceme  sohtary,  ter- 
minating the  culm Elionurus. 

DD.  Spikeiets  awned;  racemes  1  or  more 
from  each  sheathing  bract  but  not 
sohtary  on  the  culms;  sometimes  re- 
duced to  the  terminal  joint  of  3  spike- 
lets  and  borne  in  panicles. 
E.  Sessile  spikeiets  all  ahke  in  the  same 
raceme. 

F.  Racemes  several-flowered Andropogon 

FF.  Racemes  reduced  to  1  or  2  joints,  (Par.  208). 

these  in  panicles. 

G  Awn  several  inches  long Chrysopogon. 

GG.  Awn  short. 

H.  Plants  perennial,  without  rhi- 
zomes; sterile  spikelet  re- 
duced to  a  pedicel Sorghastrum. 

HH.  Plants    perennial,     with    rhi- 
zomes,    or    annual;    sterile 

spikeiets  staminate Holcus 

EE.  Sessile  spikeiets  at  the  base  of  the  (Par.  210). 

spike  different  from  the  others. 


166 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


F.  Racemes  solitary  at  the  ends  of  the 

branches Heteropogon. 

FF.  Racemes  in  pairs  from  a  sheathing 

bract,  these  in  panicles Cymbopogon 

(Par.  209). 

SuBTRiBE  SACCHARE^ 

Spikelets  perfect,  all  ahke.    The  genera  here  mentioned  have 
large  compound  inflorescences  of  wooUy  racemes. 


204.  Miscanthus  Anderss. — Tall  coarse  perennials 
with  large  panicles,  axis  of  the  racemes  not  articulated. 
One  species,  M.  sinensis  Anderss.  (Eulalia  japonica  Trin.) 
(Fig.  13),  a  native  of  eastern  Asia,  is  cultivated  for  orna- 
ment. This  grass  grows  in  large  bunches,  with  numerous 
narrow  leaves,  2  to  4  feet  long,  tapering  to  a  slender  point, 
slender  upright  flower-stalks  4  to  6  feet  high  bearing  a 
fan -shaped  cluster  of  woolly 
spikes  6  to  12  inches  long.  There 
are  3  varieties  in  cultivation:  var. 
variegatus,  with  striped  leaves; 
var.  zebrinus,  with  banded  leaves ; 
and  var.  gracillimus  with  leaves 
much  narrower  than  in  the  other 
forms.  Two  other  species  are 
occasionally  cultivated, —  M.  sac- 
charifer  Benth.,  with  nearly  or 
quite  awnless  spikelets,  and  M. 
nepalensis  Hack.  (Himalaya  fairy- 
grass),  with  spikelets  one-fourth 
as  long  as  the  bro^\^l  involucral 
hairs. 

205.  Sacchamm  L.— The  best- 

Fig.  13.   Miscanthus  sinensis.       .  .  .       , , 

Plant  much  reduced,  spikelet,       knOWU    SpCClCS    IS    the    SUgar-CaUG 
X3.     (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.        /  r*      j^    •  t    \  /t-i-       -i  a\        j.    ii 

Agrost.,  Buu.  20.)  {S.  officmarum  L.)  (Fig.  14),  a  tall 


ANDROPOGONE^ 


16- 


coarse  grass  with  broad  blades  and  a  large  woolly  plume- 
like panicle  as  much  as  2  feet  long.   The  unawned  spike- 
lets  are  similar  to  those  of  the  preceding  genus,  but  the 
axis  of   the  racemes  is   articu- 
lated.    The   native  country  of 
sugar-cane  is  not  known,  but  it 
is  now  cultivated  in  all  tropical 
countries.   Although  it  produces 
seed   occasionally    it    is   propa- 
gated by  cuttings  of  the  stem. 

206.  Erianthus  Michx.—The 
inflorescence  resembles  that  of 
the  preceding  genus,  but  the 
spikelets  are  awned.  One  species 
{E.  Ravennm  Beauv.),  a  native 
of  the  Mediterranean  region,  is 
cultivated  for  ornament  under 
the  name  of  plume-grass,  wool- 
grass,  Ravenna-grass,  or  hardy 

pampas-grass.     It  is  a  tall  peren-  Fig.  14.  Saccharum  officinarum. 

•    ^         .,^                             111                  1  Plant  much  reduced;  three  joints 

nial    with    narrow    blades    and    a  oftherachis  (a),aspikelet  (6),and 

.              ,.,                 .    ,                          1            r.  a  flower  (c),  X3.  (U.S.  Dept.Agr., 

plume-like  panicle,  as  much  as  2   Div.  Agrost.,  buU.  20.) 


feet  long. 


SuBTRiBE  EUANDROPOGONE^ 


207.  Spikelets  not  all  alike,  the  sessile  one  of  each  pair 
fertile,  the  pedicelled  sterile,  sometimes  reduced  to  the 
pedicel.  The  genera  described  below  are  included  by 
?ome  authors  as  sub-genera  of  the  large  genus  Andro- 
pogon.  The  axis  of  the  raceme  is  articulated.  The 
awn  is  very  large  and  strong  in  some  genera  (Hetero- 
pogon,  Chrysopogon),  is  geniculate  and  twisted,  and 
bears  at  the  base  of  the  spikelet  a  strong  sharp  hairy 


168 


A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Fig.  15.  Brian  thus  divaricatus.    Plant  reduced;  spikelet,  the  two  glumes,  and 
the  fertile  lemma  with  lower  portion  of  awn,  X3;  flower,  X5. 


ANDROPOGONEM 


169 


callus,  the  whole  much  resembling  the  awned  fruit  of 
Stipa  spartea. 

208.  Andropogon  L. — Sessile  spike- 
lets  all  alike  in  more  or  less  elongated 
racemes.  The  racemes  may  be  single  or 
in  pairs,  or  rarely  3  or  4  from  a  sheath- 
ing bract,  or  they  may  be  in  naked 
panicles.  The  species  are  usually  coarse 
perennials  that  inhabit  prairies,  hills, 
pine-barrens  and  other  dry  places.  Some 
species  are  important  native  forage 
grasses.  Two  of  these  are  common  on 
the  prairies  of  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
the  little  bluestem  (A.  scopar ius  Michx.) 
and  the  big  bluestem  {A.furcatus  Muhl.) 
(Fig.  16).  The  first  species  has  solitary 
racemes  from  each  bract  or  spathe,  and 
is  a  representative  of  the  subgenus 
Schizachyrium.  The  other  has  3  or  4 
racemes  in  a  naked  digitate  cluster.  A 
common  but  less  valuable  species,  the 
broom-sedge  (A.  virginicus  L.),  is  found 
in  the  Atlantic  states  on  sterile  soil. 
This  large  genus  of  hundreds  of  species 
is  spread  over  the  warmer  regions  of 
both  hemispheres. 

209.  Cymbopogon  Spreng. — ^This 
genus  resembles  Andropogon  in  having 
racemes  in  pairs  from  sheathing  bracts, 
but  differs  in  that  1  or  2  of  the  lower-       Fig.  le.  Andropo- 

-         ..      ,    ,  ,.       ,     ,          ,     ^        ,.       gon f urcatus.  Inflorea- 

most  pairs  of  spikelets  of  at  least  1  of     cence.  xh-  a  joint 

, ,  1      , 1        ,  •        ,  T      .  1  of  the   rachis  with  a 

the  racemes,  are  both  stammate.    In  the     fertile  spikeiet  beiow 

and       a       staminate 

economic  species  the  pairs  of   racemes     spikeiet  above,  xs. 


170  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

are  arranged  in  a  large  compound  panicle.  Several  species 
of  this  genus*  furnish  volatile  essential  oils  and  some  are 
cultivated  for  this  purpose.  The  most  common  cultivated 
species,  both  from  India,  are  citronella-grass,  C.  Nardus 
(L.)  Rendle,  and  lemon-grass,  C.  citratus  (DC.)  Stapf. 

210.  Holcus  L. — Racemes  reduced  to  the  terminal 
joint  which  consists  of  a  fertile  spikelet  and  a  pair  of 
staminate  spikelets,  these  racemes  or  groups  arranged  in 
panicles.  One  species,  H.  halepensis  L.  (Fig.  17),  the  well- 
known  Johnson-grass,  a  native  of  the  Old  World,  is  now 
naturalized  in  America.  This  is  a  valuable  forage-grass 
but  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  spread  in  cultivated 
fields  and  the  difficulty  with  which  it  is  eradicated  it  can- 
not be  recommended.  It  is  a  coarse  perennial  with  creep- 
ing rhizomes.  The  other  important  species  of  this  genus  is 
sorghum  (H.  Sorghum  L.),  a  tall  coarse  annual,  not  found 
in  the  wild  state  but  thought  to  be  derived  from  the  pre- 
ceding species.  There  are  many  varieties  cultivated  for 
various  purposes,t  the  sugar  sorghum,  or  saccharine  sor- 
ghum, for  its  juice,  from  which  sugar  and  syrup  are  ob- 
tained, the  forage  sorghum,  often  called  "cane"  on  the 
Great  Plains,  grown  for  forage,  kafir,  grown  for  forage 
and  the  seed,  broom-corn  for  the  stiff  branches  of  the 
inflorescence,  and  durra,  milo,  Egyptian  corn,  etc.,  for 
forage  and  seed.  Many  other  varieties  are  cultivated  in 
Africa  and  Asia.    In  some  countries  it  is  called  millet. 

The  genus  Holcus  has  been  known  as  Sorghum  and 
has  been  included  by  many  under  Andropogon.  The 
names  of  the  2  species  mentioned  appear  in  books  as 
Sorghum  halepense  (L.)  Pers.  or  Andropogon  halepensis  (L.) 

*For  a  discussion  of  this  subject,  see  O.  Stapf,  "Oil  Grasses  of  India  and 
Ceylon"  (Kew  Bull.  Misc.  Inf.  8:  297.    1906). 

tSee  Ball,  "History  and  Distribution  of  Sorghum"  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  Bur. 
PI.  Ind.  Bulletin  No.  175.    1910). 


ANDROPOGONEM 


171 


Brot.  for  the  first  and  Sorghum 
vulgar e  Pers.  or  Androyogon 
Sorghum  (L.)  Brot.  for  the 
second. 

H.  halepensis  L.  Johnson-grass. 
Culms  usually  3  to  5  feet  tall, 
erect,  smooth,  often  glaucous,  pro- 
ducing strong  creeping  rhizomes; 
sheaths  smooth;  hgule  membra- 
naceous, about  2  mm.  long,  the 
upper  half  a  cihate  fringe;  blades 
smooth  or  nearly  so,  somewhat 
scabrous  on  the  margins,  1  to  3  feet 
long,  mostly  34  to  3^  inch  wide, 
tapering  to  a  fine  point,  the  white 
midrib  conspicuous;  panicle  open 
and  spreading,  6  inches  to  2  feet 
long,  usually  more  or  less  reddish 
or  purple,  the  branches  2  to  4 
together,  naked  below,  pubescent 
at  the  base;  spikelets  somewhat 
crowded  along  the  upper  part  of 
the  branches,  in  pairs  or  the  termi- 
nal in  3's,  1  sessile  and  fertile  and 
1  or  2  pediceled  and  staminate; 
fertile  spikelet  about  5  mm.  long, 
flattened  dorsally,  elliptical  or  ovate- 
lanceolate,  indistinctly  nerved,  firm 
and  coriaceous,  at  first  pubes- 
cent   but  later    becoming   smooth 


Fig.  17.  Holcug  halepensis.  Inflorescence 
and  rhizomes,  X  H,  a  terminal  fertile  spike- 
let  with  two  staminate  spikelets,  X3. 


172  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

and  shining  on  the  exposed  parts;  staminate  spikelets  more  slender, 
and  slightly  longer  than  the  sessile,  distinctly  nerved,  membra- 
naceous, the  pedicel  about  half  as  long  as  the  sessile  spikelet,  ciliate. 
The  staminate  spikelets  disarticulate  early  so  that  the  mature  fertile 
spikelets  show  only  the  1  or  2  ciUate  pedicels  at  the  back.  The  whole 
plant  is  frequently  subject  to  a  disease  which  produces  purple  spots 
on  the  stem  and  leaves.    This  is  also  observed  in  Holcus  Sorghum. 

211.  Classification  of  the  sorghums. — Ball  (loc.  cit.) 
classifies  the  sorghums  as  follows : 

A.  Pith  juicy. 

B.  Juice  abundant  and  very  sweet Sorgo. 

BB.  Juice  scanty,  slightly  sweet  to  subacid. 

c.  Panicles  cyUndrical;  peduncles  erect;  spike- 
lets 3  to  4  mm.  wide;  lemmas  awnless.  .Kafir. 
cc.  Panicles  ovate;  peduncle  mostly  inclined, 
often  recurved;  spikelets  4.5  to  6  mm. 

wide;  lemmas  awned Milo. 

AA.  Pith  dry. 

B.  Panicle  lax,  25  to  70  cm.  long.  . . 

c.  Rachis    less    than    one-fifth    as    long    as 
the    panicle;    panicle    umbelliform,    the 

branches  greatly  elongated Broom-Corn. 

cc.  Rachis  more  than  two-thirds  as  long  as 
the  panicle. 
D.  Panicle  conical,  the  branches  strongly 

drooping Shallu. 

DD.  Panicle  oval  or  obovate,  the  branches 

spreading Kowliang. 

BB.  Panicle  compact,  10  to  25  cm.  long. 

c.  Spikelets  eUiptic-oval  or  obovate,  2.5  to 

3.5  mm.  wide Kowliang. 

cc.  Spikelets  broadly  obovate,  4.5  to  6  mm. 
wade. 
D.  Glumes  gray  or  greenish,  not  wrinkled, 
densely     pubescent;     seeds     strongly 

flattened Durra. 

DD.  Glumes  deep  brown  or  black,  trans- 
versely wrinkled,  thinly  pubescent; 
seeds  sUghtly  flattened Milo. 

Sudan-grass  resembles  Johnson-grass  in  habit  but  is 
an  annual,  entirely  devoid  of  rootstocks.  By  Piper  it  is 
referred  to  Sorghum  as  a  variety.    Sudan-grass  promises 


ANDROPOGONEM  173 

to  be  of  value  as  a  forage  crop  in  the  southern  states. 
Tunis-grass,  resembUng  Sudan-grass,  is  another  variety 
of  the  sorghum.  (See,  "Some  New  Grasses  for  the  South," 
Yearbook  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  1912.) 

Sorghastrum  nutans  (L.)  Nash,  a  species  of  a  related 
genus,  is  a  common  constituent  of  native  meadows  over 
the  same  region  that  Andropogon  furcatus  is  found.  It  is 
a  tall  slender  perennial  with  bronze-colored  panicles  with 
brilliant  yellow  anthers. 

Tribe  III.    NAZIE^  (ZOYSIE.E) 

212.  This  is  an  unimportant  tribe  of  about  a  dozen 
small  genera.  The  spikelets  are  similar  to  those  of  Andro- 
pogoneae  but  having  membranaceous  awnless  instead  of 
hyaline  usually  awned  lemmas,  are  single  or  in  groups  and 
fall  entire  from  the  continuous  rachis.  In  the  genera  found 
in  the  United  States  the  spikelets  are  in  groups. 

Key  to  Genera  of  Nazie^ 

A.  Second  glume  beset  with  hooked  spines Nazia. 

AA.  Second  glume  without  hooked  spines. 

B.  Groups  of  spikelets  spreading  or  drooping 

along  one  side  of  the  main  axis ^gopogon. 

BB.  Groups  of  spikelets  erect,  not  secund. 

c.  Plants  stoloniferous Hilaria. 

cc.  Plants  not  stoloniferous Pleuraphis. 

The  most  important  genus  is  Hilaria,  with  the  species 
H.  cenchroides  H.B.K.  (Fig.  18),  curly  mesquite.  This 
grass  is  common  on  the  uplands  of  Texas  and  Mexico 
where  it  is  an  important  range-grass.  It  resembles  buf- 
falo-grass in  being  short,  in  producing  stolons  and  in 
forming  a  sod,  and  by  stockmen  is  often  confused  with 
that  grass.  In  curly  mesquite,  the  spikelets  are  in  clus- 
ters of  3,  the  groups  borne  on  the  upright  axis  forming 


174 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Fig.  18.  Hilaria  cenchroides.  Plant  reduced;  group  of  spikelets, 
a  staniinate  spikelet,  a  pistillate  spikelet,  X5.  (U.  S.  Dept.  Aur., 
Div.  Agrost.,  Bull.  20.) 


NAZIE^—MELINIDEM  175 

a  short  spike.  The  allied  genus  Pleuraphis  furnishes  a 
few  important  forage  grasses  in  the  Southwest.  Pleura- 
phis  Jamesi  Torr.,  is  called  galleta  in  New  Mexico,  a 
name  which  is  applied  in  California  to  P.  rigida  Thurb. 

Other  grasses  of  interest  belonging  to  this  tribe  are 
Nazia,  one  species  of  which,  N.  aliena  (Spreng.)  Scribn. 
extends  from  the  tropics  into  Arizona,  and  Osterdamia 
(Zoysia),  one  species  of  which  0.  matrella  (L.)  Kuntze 
{Zoysia  pungens  Willd.),  the  Japanese  or  Korean  lawn- 
grass  is  occasionally  cultivated  in  California,  and  along 
the  seacoast  of  the  south  Atlantic  states.  The  first 
mentioned  genus  is  peculiar  in  that  the  fascicles  of  3  to  5 
spikelets  form  a  bur,  the  second  glume  of  each  spikelet 
being  provided  with  hooked  spines.  In  Osterdamia  the 
spikelets  are  single  instead  of  in  groups. 

Tribe  IV.     MELINIDE^  (TRISTEGINE^) 

213.  This  is  a  small  tribe  of  about  8  genera,  none  of 
which  is  represented  in  the  United  States.  The  spikelets 
are  borne  singly  in  panicled  racemes  with  a  continuous 
axis.  The  most  important  genus  is  Arundinella,  reed-like 
grasses,  several  species  of  which  are  found  in  tropical 
America. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
Tribe  V.     PANICEiE 

Spikelets  with  1  terminal  perfect  floret  and  astaminate 
or  neutral  floret  below;  fertile  lemma  firmer  than  the 
glumes,  often  chartaceous;  spikelets  jointed  on  the  pedicel 
below  the  glumes.  This  large  and  important  tribe  is,  like 
Andropogoneae,  found  mostly  in  the  tropics  and  warm 
regions,  but  is  well  represented  throughout  the  United 
States,  especially  in  the  southern  portion.  The  first  glume 
is  usually  absent  in  the  large  genus  Paspalum  and  in  a 
few  other  genera,  and  in  Reimarochloa  and  in  certain  spe- 
cies of  Paspalum  the  second  glume  also  is  absent.  In 
Eriochloa  the  first  glume  is  reduced  to  a  minute  ridge 
about  the  swollen  ring-like  lower  joint  of  the  rachilla.  In 
Isachne  the  lower  flower  is  perfect  like  the  upper.  In  this 
tribe  the  spikelets  are  usually  unawned  but  the  glumes 
are  awned  in  Echinochloa,  Oplismenus  and  Chtetium,  and 
the  lemma  in  Tricholsena.  What  appear  in  some  genera  to 
be  awns  are  bristle-like  branchlets.  In  Chsetochloa  there 
are  1  or  more  of  these  below  all  or  some  of  the  spikelets,  the 
bristles  remaining  after  the  fall  of  the  spikelets.  In  Penni- 
setum  there  is  an  involucre  of  bristles  (branchlets)  sur- 
rounding the  base  of  a  cluster  of  spikelets,  the  bristles 
being  deciduous  with  the  cluster.  In  Cenchrus  the  bris- 
tles are  retrorsely  barbed  and  fused  into  a  mass,  forming 
a  bur  around  the  spikelets.  An  Australian  genus,  Spinifex, 
is  dioecious  and  Olyra  is  monoecious.  The  fruit  of  Pani- 
cum  and  of  several  other  genera  is  a  seed-like  body  con- 
(176) 


PANICEM  177 

sisting  of  the  chartaceous  fertile  lemma  and  palea  inclos- 
ing a  caryopsis  the  covering  of  which  is  thin.  The  genus 
Amphicarpon  is  peculiar  in  having  2  kinds  of  spikelets, 
ordinary  spikelets  in  a  terminal  panicle,  and  underground 
cleistogamous  spikelets  borne  on  short  subterranean 
branches  that  appear  like  rhizomes.  Only  the  latter  bear 
seed. 

Key  to  the  Genera  of  Panice^ 

A.  Spikelets  not  all  alike. 

B.  Spikelets  all  perfect,  but  those  of  the  aerial 
panicle  not  perfecting  grains;  the  fruitful 
spikelets  cleistogamous,  borne  on  sub- 
terranean branches.  Florida  to  New  Jersey. Amphicarpon. 
BB.  Spikelets  not  all  perfect,  the  inflorescence 
bearing  pistillate  spikelets  above  and 
staminate  spikelets  below;  panicles  ter- 
minating   the    branches;    blades    broad,  « 

elliptical.    Florida Olyra. 

AA.  Spikelets  all  alike. 

B.  Spikelets    sunken    in    the    cavities    of    the 

flattened  corky  axis Stenotaphrtjm 

BB.  Spikelets  not  sunken  in  the  rachis.  (Par.  223). 

c.  Spikelets  subtended  or  surrounded  by  1  to 
many  bristles  (sterile  branchlets),  these 
distinct  or  more  or  less  connate,  forming 
an  involucre. 
D.  Bristles  persistent,  spikelets  deciduous.. Ch^tochloa 
DD.  Bristles   falUng    with    the   spikelets   at  (Par.  220). 

maturity. 
e.  Bristles  not  united  at  base,  usually 

slender,  often  plumose Pennisetum 

EE.  Bristles  more  or  less  united  into  a  bur-  (Par.  221). 

Hke  involucre Cenchrus 

CO.  Spikelets  not  subtended  by  bristles.  (Par.  222). 

D.  Fruit  cartilaginous-indurated,  not  rigid, 

papillose,    usually    dark-colored,    the 

lemma  with  more  or  less  prominent 

white  hyaline  margins  not  inrolled. 

E.  Fruiting     lemma     boat-shaped,     the 

hyaline    margins    narrow.     Florida 

to  Louisiana Anth^nantia 

EE.  Fruiting  lemma  convex,  the  hyahne 
margins  broad. 
F.  Fruit  lanceolate-acuminate;  second 
glume   and   sterile   lemma   long- 
silky.   Florida  to  Arizona Valota. 

L 


178  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

FF.  Fruit  elliptic;  pubescence  short  or 
none. 
G.  Inflorescence  of  slender  racemes, 
more    or    less    digitately    ar- 
ranged   Syntherisma 

(Par.  216). 
GG.  Inflorescence  a  capillary  panicle.. Leptoloma. 
DD.  Fruit  indurated,  rigid   (or  if  thin,  not 
hyaline-margined) . 
E.  Spikelets   (or  the  primary  one  of  a 
pair)  placed  with  the  back  of  the 
fruit  turned  away  from  the  rachis, 
usually  solitary  (not  in  pairs). 
p.  First  glume  and  the  rachilla  joint 
forming  a  swollen  ring-hke  callus 

below  the  spikelet Eriochloa. 

FP.  First  glume  present  or  wanting  but 
no    ring-like    caUus    below    the 
spikelet. 
G.  First    glume     present;     racemes 

racemose  along  the  main  axis.  .Brachiaria. 
GG.  First    glume   wanting;    racemes 

digitate  or  subdigitate Axonopus 

EE.  Spikelets  placed  with  the  back  of  the  (Par.  215). 

fruit  turned  toward  the  rachis  of 
of  the  spike-like  racemes,  or  pedicel- 
late in  panicles, 
p.  Fruit  long-acuminate,   scarcely  in- 
durated;   both    glumes   wanting; 
spikelets  sessile,  solitary  in  spike- 
hke    racemes,    these    reflexed    or 
verticillate  at  maturity.    Florida, 

rare Reimarochloa. 

pp.  Fruit  not  long-acuminate,  indurated. 

G.  First    glume    typically    wanting; 

spikelets  plano-convex,  subses- 

sile  in  spike-like  racemes Paspalum 

GG.  First    glume    present;    spikelets  (Par.  214). 

usually  in  panicles. 
H.  Glumes  and  lemmas  unawned. 
I.  Second    glume    inflated-sac- 
cate, this  and  the    sterile 
lemma  much  exceeding  the 

stipitate  fruit Sacciolepis. 

n.  Second   glume   not   inflated- 
saccate. 
J.  Culms     (in     our    species) 
woody;  fruit  with  a  tuft 
of  down  at  apex.  Florida. Lasiacis. 


PANICS^ 


179 


jj.  Culms  herbaceous. Panicum 
HH.  Glumes     or     lemmas       (Par.  217). 
a w n e d    (or    awn- 
tipped    in    Echino- 
chloa  colonuni). 
I.  Inflorescence  panicu- 
late;    spikelets 
silky.    Introduced 

in  Florida Tricuol^na 

II.  Inflorescence  of  uni-       (Par.  219). 
lateral    racemes 
along    a    common 
axis. 
J.  Glumes     2-lobed, 
awned  from  be- 
tween the  lobes; 
blades  broad  and 
thin,  lanceolate. 

Florida Oplismenus. 

JJ.  Glumes    awned 

from  the  tip  . .  .  Echinochloa 
(Par.  218). 

214.  Paspalum-L. — A  large  genus  of 
probably  200  species,  well  represented  in 
the  Gulf  and  south  Atlantic  states.  It  can 
be  easily  distinguished  by  the  plano-convex 
spikelets  in  spike-like  racemes.  There  are 
comparatively  few  species  of  economic 
importance.  They  are  almost  entirely 
absent  from  the  grazing  regions  of  the 
central  and  western  United  States,  and  in 
the  southeastern  states  do  not  form  an 
important  constituent  of  grazing  areas, 
being  mostly  inhabitants  of  wet  or  sandy 
soil  and  not  often  gregarious.  An  attempt 
was  made,  but  with  little  success,  to  intro- 
duce into  cultivation  P.  dilatatmn  Poir. 
(Fig.  19) ,  under  the  name  of  water-grass.  In 
the  savannas  of  Central  America  certain  species,  such  as 
P.  notatum  Fliigge  and  P.  minus  Vasey,  are  important. 


FiQ.  19.  Paspa- 
1  u  m  dilatatum. 
Inflorescence, 

X4>    spikelet, 

X5. 


180 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


215.  Axonopus  Beauv. — By  many  authorities  this 
group  has  been  included  in  the  genus  Paspahim,  but  it 
forms  a  distinct  natural  group.  Several  species  are 
found  in  tropical  America  but  only 
2  extend  as  far  north  as  the  United 
States,  One  of  these,  A .  compressus 
(Swartz)  Beauv.,  is  the  carpet-grass 
of  the  Gulf  States,  where  it  is  an 
important  grazing-grass  and  also  a 
lawn-grass.  It  is  a  stolonifer- 
ous  perennial  with  flattened 
stems,  comparatively  short, 
broadly  linear,  abruptly 
pointed  blades,  and  slender 
spikes  more  or  less  digitate  or 
clustered  at  the  summit  of  the 
stem.    (Anastrophus  Schrad.) 

216.  Syntherisma   Walt. — 
This    distinct    group    is    con- 
sidered by  some  to  be  a  sec- 
tion of  Panicum.   Perennial  or 
annual    grasses  with    slender 
mostly    digitate    spike -like 
racemes.  The  perennial  species 
are  natives    of   the    southern 
United  States  and  southward 
and  are  of  little  importance. 
Most  of  the  an- 
nuals are  intro- 
duced     from 
Europe  and  are 
troublesome 

Syntherisma  aanguinalis.    Plant,  XH;  two  j  ^-. 

views  of  spikelet.   X5.  WeedS.         UnC 


PANICS^  181 

species  in  particular,  S.  sanguinalis,  is  a  well-known  weed 
under  the  name  of  crab-grass.  This  and  S.  ischcemum 
are  troublesome  weeds  in  lawns.  Being  annuals,  they  die 
out  and  leave  unsightly  brown  patches.  Crab-grass  is 
often  utilized  for  hay  in  the  southern  states.  (Digi- 
taria  Hall.) 

Syntherisma  sanguinalis  (L.)  Dulac.  (Fig.  20).  Crab-grass. 
Crop-grass.  Annual;  culms  becoming  much  branched  at  base, 
decumbent  or  prostrate  and  rooting  at  the  nodes,  the  flowering 
branches  ascending,  sometimes  as  much  as  3  or  4  feet  long ;  sheaths 
hirsute,  with  hairs  arising  from  papillae,  sometimes  nearly  glabrous 
except  near  the  nodes;  hgule  about  1  mm.  long,  thin  and  membra- 
naceous, blades  flat  and  thin,  more  or  less  hirsute  like  the  sheaths,  2 
to  6  inches  long  and  as  much  as  K  inch  wide;  panicle  consisting  of 
few  to  several  slender  spikes,  3  to  6  inches  long,  a  few  digitate  at 
the  summit  of  the  culm,  with  usually  several  others  below  in  a  more 
or  less  distinct  whorl;  rachis  flat,  winged  on  the  margins,  about  1 
mm.  wide,  bearing  on  one  side  the  appressed  crowded  spikelets, 
these  in  pairs,  one  nearly  sessile,  the  other  with  a  sharply  triangular 
pedicel  about  half  as  long  as  the  spikelet;  spikelets  flattened  dor- 
sally,  elliptical-lanceolate,  about  3  mm.  long,  the  first  glume  small, 
nerveless,  about  14  mm.  long,  the  second  glume  lying  next  to  the 
axis^  narrow,  about  half  as  long  as  the  spikelet,  appressed-villous, 
the  sterile  lemma  distinctly  3-nerved,  as  long  as  the  spikelet,  the 
lateral  nerves  more  or  less  ciliate-fringed.  The  plant  is  often  pur- 
phsh  tinged,  and  the  species  is  variable  in  size  and  habit  accord- 
ingly as  it  grows  in  rich  or  poor  soil,  in  the  open  or  among  other 
plants. 

A  related  species,  S.  ischsemum  (Schreb.)  Nash  {Digitaria 
hu7nifusa  Pers.;  Syntherisma  linearis  Nash;  S.  glahrum  Schrad.), 
is  common  in  the  eastern  United  States.  This  species  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  preceding  by  its  being  glabrous  or  nearly  so, 
by  the  smaller  spikelets,  and  by  the  absence  of  the  first  glume. 

217.  Panicum  L. — This  large  genus  of  probably  400 
species  is  distributed  throughout  all  warm  regions.  The 
spikelets  are  usually  arranged  in  panicles.   They  consist  of 


182 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


2  glumes  and.  a  sterile  lemma,  all  herbaceous,  and  1 
indurated  fertile  lemma  and  palea.  The  sterile  lemma  may 
contain  a  staminate  flower.  The  subgenus  Dichanthelium, 

confined  to   America, 
with  its  center  of  dis- 
tribution in  the  south- 
eastern states,  includes 
over  100  species.  This 
group   is   peculiar   in 
having  simple  vernal 
culms   with    terminal 
spreading  panicles, 
the  vernal  phase  usu- 
ally very  distinct  from 
the  later  branched  or 
autumnal  phase  in  which  the 
panicles    are  much   reduced 
and    often  included    in    the 
sheaths.  The  autumnal  spike- 
lets    are    cleistogamous    and 
fertile  while  the  vernal  spike- 
lets    appear    to    be    usually 
unfruitful.  Despite  the  great 
number    of    species    in    the 
genus   Panicum,  few  are   of 
ecomonic   importance.     One 
species,     P.     mUiaceum     L. 
(Fig.    21),    proso    millet    or 
broom-corn    millet,  is  culti- 
vated in  Europe  for  the  grain 
which  is  used  for  food,  and 
is  sparingly  cultivated  in  this 
country  for  fodder.   It  is  an 


Fig.   21.    Panicum 
miliaceum.  Inflores- 

pence,  X?^;  spikeletand 
fruit  (fertile  lemma  and 
palea),  X7. 


PANICEM 


183 


annual  with  a  drooping  panicle.  Para-grass  (P.  barbinode 
Trin.),  a  Brazilian  grass  much  cultivated  for  forage  in  the 
American  tropics,  is  sparingly  grown  in  the  southern 
parts  of  Florida  and  Texas.  It  is  a  coarse  grass,  with 
stolons  several  feet  in  length,  strongly 
bearded  nodes,  and  an  inflorescence  of 
several  spike-like  racemes  racemosely 
arranged.  Guinea -grass  (P.  maximum 
Jacq.)  is  an  African  grass,  also  much 
grown  in  the  tropics  for  forage.  It  is  an 
erect  bunch-grass,  as  much  as  8  feet  high, 
with  a  large  spreading  panicle.  Guinea- 
grass  is  too  susceptible  to  frost  for  culti- 
vation in  the  United  States  except  in 
southern  Florida.  Texas  millet,  or  Colo- 
rado-grass, is  P.  texanum  Buckl.,  a  native 
of  the  Colorado  River  valley  in  Texas 
(Par.  62).  Panicum  bulbosum  H.  B.  K., 
of  the  Southwest,  produces  well-marked 
corms. 

218.  Echinochloa  Beauv. — A  small 
genus  that  is  included  by  some  as  a 
section  of  Panicum.  The  spikelets  are 
as  in  Panicum,  but  the  sterile  lemma 
and  usually  the  second  glume  are 
awned,  often  conspicuously  so.  The 
fruit  is  pointed  and  the  palea  is  free  at 
the  summit.  The  spikelets  are  in  short 
racemes,  these  racemosely  arranged. 
All  the  species  are  annuals.  One 
species,  barnyard-grass,  E.  Crus-galli 
(L.)   Beauv.,   is   a   common   weed  in     Fiq.  22.  Echinochloa  fm- 

.  ,  ,  I,-        ,      1  •!  .      mentacea.      Inflorescence, 

waste   places  and  cultivated   sou.    A   xK,  spikeict,  xs. 


184 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


X^ 


closely  allied  species,  E.  frumentacea  (Roxb.)  Link  (Fig. 
22),  is  cultivated  for  forage  under  the  name  billion-dollar- 
grass.  This  and  E.  colonum  (L.)  Link  are  cultivated  in 
India  for  the  seed,  which  is  used  for  food. 

219.  Tricholaena  Schrad. — A  small  genus 
of  African  grasses,  one  of  which  has  been 
introduced  into  the  American  tropics. 
Spikelets  in  panicles,  very  hairy.  Tricho- 
Icena  rosea  Nees  has  given  promise  of  value 
as  a  meadow-grass  on  the  dry  pine  lands 
of  Florida.  It  is  there  called  Natal-grass 
and,  incorrectly,  redtop.  Natal-grass  is  an 
erect  perennial,  2  to  3  feet  high,  with  a 
loose  panicle  of  pink  or  rosy  silky  spike- 
lets.  It  is  said  to  furnish  4  or  5  cuttings 
of  hay  in  a  season.  This  grass  may  be 
growm  from  seed  or  by  setting  out  divisions 
of  the  root  or  crown. 

220.  Chaetochloa  Scribn. — A  small 
genus  of  annuals  or  perennials,  the  spike- 
lets  in  narrow  often  spike-like  panicles, 
interspersed  with  bristles.  Two  annual 
European  species  with  cylindrical  spike- 
like panicles  are  common  weeds  in  the 
eastern  half  of  the  United  States.  One  of 
them,  yellow  foxtail,  C  lutescens  (Weigel) 

Fig  23   Chsto-   Stuutz  (Fig.  23) ,  has  yellow  spikes  and  5  or 
chioa  lutescens.  In-   more    bHstlcs   bclow   cach    spikelet;    the 

florescence,       X?*;  -^        . 

ten^n^briiuesxs'  ^^^^^}  grecu  foxtail,  C.  viridis  (L.)  Scribn., 
has  green  spikes  and  only  1  to  3  bristles 
below  each  spikelet.  Another  species,  C.  italica,  closely 
allied  to  the  latter,  is  commonly  cultivated  as  millet  or 
Hungarian  grass.    This  has  large  heads,  or  spikes,  which 


PANICS^ 


185 


in  some  varieties  are  compound  and  more  or 
less  lobed.  In  this  country  millet  is  grown 
for  forage  but  in  some 
parts  of  the  Old  World 
the  seed  is  used  for 
human  food.  (Setaria 
Beauv.) 

Chsetochloa    italica    (L.) 
Scribn.  {Setaria  italica  Beauv. ; 
Panicum  italicum  L.)   (Figs. 
24  and  25).  Millet.    Foxtail 
millet.    Hungarian    grass. 
Annual;  culms  erect,  simple 
or  nearly  so,  2  to  4  feet  high, 
or  sometimes  larger,  glabrous 
or  scabrous  below  the  pani- 
cle; sheaths  glabrous,  ciUate 
on  the  margins    and  pubes- 
cent at  the  collar;    ligule  a 
densely   ciliate  ring   1    to   2 
mm.   long;    blades  flat,   sca- 
brous, narrowed  below  and  toward 
the  apex,  6  to   18  inches  long,  as 
much    as    an    inch    wide;    panicle 
dense,   cylindrical,  erect  or  in  the 
larger  forms  drooping  at  the  apex, 
from  an  inch    or    two  to   as  much  as  a  foot  in 
length  and  from  J/^  inch  to  2  inches  in  diameter, 
continuous    or    lobed  and   interrupted,   yellow  or 
purple,  bearing  bristles  as  long  as  the  spikelets  or 
much  exceeding  them;  rachis  and  branches  villous; 
spikelets  about  3  mm.  long,   the  bristles    from   1 
to  several  times  the  length  of  the  spikelet,  the  first 
glume   ovate,    3-nerved,   about    1   mm.   long,   the 
second  glume  a  httle  shorter  than  the  spikelet. 
Fig.  25.  Chaeto-    7_nerved,  the  sterile  lemma  similar  to  the  second 

chloa  italica,  com-  ' 

mon  millet,  inflor-   glume,  as  long  as  the  spikelet ;   fruit  easily  dis- 
esc^ence,      2.  rui  ,    articulating  above  the  sterile  lemma,  round  on  one 


Fig.  24.  Chse- 
tochloa italica, 
Hungarian  grass. 
Inflorescence, 


186 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Pen- 


glaucum. 


Fig.  26, 
nisetum 

Inflorescence,  XJ4. 
spikelet  with  invo- 
lucre of  bristles,  X5. 


side,  flattened  on  the  other,  straw-colored,  red  or  brown, 
smooth,  very  minutely  and  rather  faintly  cross-wrinkled. 
There  are  many  varieties  differing  in  the  length  and 
color  of  the  bristles,  in  the  color  of  the  seed  or  fruit  and 
in  the  size  and  lobing  of  the  panicle  or  head.  The  name 
Hungarian  grass  is  given  to  the  form  with  small  purple 
heads. 

221.  Peimisetum    Pers. — In   this   genus   the 
spikelets,  single  or  in  groups,  are  surrounded  by 
bristles    as    in    Cenchrus    but    the    bristles  are 
distinct,   and    are    often    unequal   in  length  or 
plumose.   The  inflorescence  is  a  spike  or  raceme. 
The  most  important  species  of  the  genus  is  the 
pearl   millet,    P.   glaucum   (L.)    R. 
Br.  (Fig.  26);  P.  americanum  (L.) 
Schum. ;  Penicillaria  spicata  Willd. ; 
P.  typhoidciim  Rich.).   This  is  a  tall 
coarse    annual    with 
broad  blades   like    sor- 
ghum and  a  close  cylin- 
drical    spike    about     a 
foot   long  and  an  inch 
or  less  in  thickness.   At 
maturity  the  smooth  and  shining  ripened 
caryopsis  bursts  through  the  lemma  and 
palea.    Pearl  millet  is  growai  in  Africa  for 
food  and  to  a  limited  extent  in  our  southern 
states  for  forage.   Two  species  of  Pennise- 
tum  are  commonly  cultivated   for  orna- 
ment, P.  villosum  R.  Br.,  with  short  broad 
heads  and  long  plumose  bristles,  and  P. 
RuppelUi  Steud.,  with  more  slender  rose- 
colored    spikes    tapering    at    the    apex. 
(Penicillaria  Willd.;  Gymnothrix  Beauv.) 


PANICE^ 


187 


222.  Cenchrus  L. — Sand-bur.  Bur-grass.  Low  often 
weedy  grasses,  usually  annuals,  the  spikelets,  singly 
or  2  or  3  together,  inclosed  by  a  bur  formed  of 
coalesced    bristles    or 

branchlets,  these 
usually  retrorsely 
barbed.  The  burs  are 
borne  in  a  spike  or 
raceme,  and,  detach- 
ing easily  at  maturity, 
are  transported  by 
animals.  The  spikelets 
remain  permanently 
inclosed  in  the  bur, 
germination  of  the 
seed  taking  place 
within  it.  The  first 
glume  is  much  re- 
duced, sometimes 
wanting.  The  com- 
mon sand-bur  of  the 
United  States  is  Cen- 
chrus carolinianus 
Walt.  (Fig.  27).  The 
one  with  larger  burs 
found  among  the  sand- 
dunes  of  the  Atlantic 
seacoast  is  C. 
tribuloides  L. 

223.  Stenotaphrum 
Tnw.— The  best- 
known   species  of   this  Fiq.  27.    Cenchrus   carolinianus.     Upper 

,  _,  portion    of   plant   with   inflorescence,   X%; 

genus     IS     the     St.       spikeiet,  x7. 


188 


A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Augustine  grass,  S.  secundatiim  (Walt.)  Kuntze  (Fig.  28), 
a  stoloniferous  perennial  with  flat  stems  and  spikes,  the 
spikelets  partly  immersed  in  the  thickened  rachis.  This 
species  is  grown  as  a  lawn-grass  near  the  seacoast  from 
North  Carolina  to  Florida  and  Louisiana. 


Fig.  28.  Stenotaphrum  secundatum. 
Upper  portion  of  culms  with  inflores- 
cence, X  H.  spikelet,  X5. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


Tribe  VI.     ORYZE^ 

This  is  one  of  the  smaller  tribes,  the 
place  of  which  among 
the  other  tribes  is 
not  evident.  Neither 
is  it  in  itself  a  natural 
group,  but  is  made 
up  of  genera  of  diverse 
affinities.  Certain 
anomalous  genera, 
such  as  Pharus  (Fig. 
29)  Streptochaeta  and 
Reynaudia,  included 
by  Hackel  and  by 
Baillon  in  Oryzese  are 
referred  by  Bentham 
and  Hooker,  the  first 
two  to  Panicese  and 
the  third  to  Triste- 
gineae.  The  articula- 
tion of  the  spikelets 
below  the  glumes  in- 
dicates an  alliance 
with  the  first  series 
of  tribes,  Panicoideae; 
the     laterally     com- 

T\T-QooQrl       rw      +QT'c.+  o         Fig.  29.  Phania  glaber.   Plant  reduced;  branch- 
preSSeu       or       X  e  r  e  l  e     let  of  inflorescence  with  a  sessile  pistillate  and  pedi- 
"ed  staminate  spikelet,  and  a  fertile  flor( 
S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agrost.,  BuU.  20). 

(189) 


spikelets    indicate    an     veiled  staminate  spi_kelet,  and  a  fertile  floret.   XS. 


190  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

alliance  with  the  second  series,  Poseoidese.  The  spikelets 
are  l-flowered,  perfect  or  unisexual,  and  usually  disposed 
in  panicles.  There  are  usually  6  stamens  and  the  hilum 
is  linear  instead  of  punctiform,  in  which  two  respects 
the  structure  is  somewhat  anomalous.  The  palea  is 
usually  described  as  1-nerved,  but  an  examination  of 
Oryza  saliva  shows  a  palea  with  the  2  nerves  close  to 
the  margin,  the  region  between  convex  instead  of  concave 
as  is  usual  in  the  palea  of  other  grasses.  In  several  genera, 
glumes  are  rudimentary  or  wanting.  The  tribe  includes 
about  16  genera,  mostly  inhabitants  of  tropical  America, 
6  extending  into  the  United  States. 

Key  to  the  Genera  of  Oryze^ 

A.  Spikelets  perfect,  strongly  compressed  laterally. 

B.  Glumes  2;  lemma  often  awned  ORYZA(Par.224) 

BB.  Glumes  wanting;  lemma  awnless Homalocen- 

AA.  Spikelets  unisexual,  terete;  plants  monoecious.  chrus. 

B.  Plants    slender,    creeping    in    the    mud    or 
floating  in  the  water. 
c.  Inflorescence  a  few-flowered  spike;  plants 
not  stoloniferous.    Southeastern  United 

States Hydrochloa. 

cc.  Inflorescence  a  panicle;  plants  stolonifer- 
ous.  Alabama Luziola. 

BB.  Plants   erect,    stout;   marsh   plants   or   ter- 
restrial. 
c.  Blades  elliptical  or  oblanceolate,  petiolate; 
fruit     cylindrical,     beset    with    hooked 

hairs;  plants  terrestrial.    Florida Pharus. 

cc.  Blades    elongated,    hnear,    not    petiolate; 
marsh  plants. 
D.  Pistillate  spikelets  in  the  usually  narrow 
upper  part  of  the  panicle;  staminate 
spikelets  in  the  spreading  lower  part. .  Zizania 
DD.  Pistillate  and  staminate  spikelets  mi.xed  (Par.  225). 

in  the  panicle,  the  former  below  and 
the  latter  above  on  each  branch. 
Gulf  States Zizaniopsis. 

224.  Oryza  L. — Rice.    Characterized  by  the  perfect 
flowers,  strongly  compressed  spikelets  and  the  presence 


ORYZEM 


191 


of  2  small  glumes.    Of  the  half-dozen  species 
only  one  is  of  importance.    This  is  0.  saliva  L. 
(Fig.  30),  the  cultivated  rice,  an  annual  now 
grown  in  numerous  varieties  throughout  the 
warmer  regions  of  the  world. 
Rice  is  the  most  important  of 
the  cereals  in  the  sense  that  it 
furnishes  food  to  more  people 
than    any   other  one    grain. 
The  allied   genus   Homalocenchrus 
is  represented  by  several  perennial 
species  in  the  eastern  United  States. 
The  spikelets  resem- 
ble those  of  Oryza  but  are 
smaller     and      lack     the 
glumes. 

225.  Zizania  L. — Indian 
Water  -  rice.  Tall 
marsh-grasses,  with  large 
panicles,  usually  growing 
in  shallow  water  in  large 
areas.  The  pistillate  spike- 
lets  are  long-awned  and 
erect,  the  staminate  are 
awnless  and  drooping. 
The  seeds  were  formerly 
gathered  by  the  American 
Indians  and  used  for  food. 
There  are  3  species,  Zizania  palustris  L. 
(Fig.  31),  the  common  Indian  rice  of  the 

TT    -^     1    f^.    .  ry  .•        X  1  Fig.  31.    Zizania 

United  states,  Z.  aquahca  L.,  a  less  com-   paiustris.  inflorea- 
mon   species  of  Canada,  and  Z.  latifolia    duced.  (U.  s.  Dept. 

/™  s    n,,        i'        f  ,  A     •  Agr.,  Div.  Agrost., 

(Turcz.)  Stapf,  of  eastern  Asia.  buU.  i4.) 


Fig.  30.  Oryza  sa^ 
t  i  V  a.  Inflorescence 
X  J^,  spikelet,  X3. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


Fig.  32.  Anthoxanthum  odora- 
tum.  Inflorescence,  1;  spikelet, 
the  two  sterile  lemmas  and  the 
fertile  floret,  X5. 


Tribe  VIL     PHALARIDEiE 

A  SMALL  tribe  of  about  6  genera  in  the 
cooler  parts  of  the  northern  hemisphere  and 
of  Australasia.  Spikelets  with  1  fertile 
floret  and  a  pair  of  staminate  or  neutral 
florets  below.  In  Phalaris,  the  pair  of  sterile 
florets  appear  as  small  scales  within  the 
glumes.  In  Savastana  the  lateral  florets  (1 
or  2)  are  staminate  and  as  large  as  the 
fertile  floret.  Only  3  genera  are  found  in 
the  United  States. 


Key  to  the  Genera  op  Phai,aride.e 

A.  Lateral  florets  stami- 
nate   Savastana 

AA.  Lateral  florets  neutral.      (Par.  226). 
B.  Lateral    florets    re- 
duced to  small  awn- 
less  scales;  spikelets 
much      compressed 

laterally Phalaris 

BB.  Lateral  florets  con-  (Par.  228). 
sisting  of  awned 
hairy  sterile  lemmas 
about  as  long  as  the 
fertile  floret;  spike- 
lets terete Anthoxan- 

[thum 
(Par.  227). 

226.  Savastana    Schrank. — 
Inflorescence   an   open  or  con- 
tracted   but    not    spike-like 
(192) 


PHALARIDEJE 


193 


panicle;  spikelets  brown  and  shining;  lateral 
florets  (often  awned)  with  3  stamens,  the 
central  perfect  floret  with  2  stamens.  The 
best  known  species  is  S.  odorata  (L.)  Scribn., 
or  vanilla-grass,  a  native  of  northern  Europe 
and  America.  The  name  vanilla-grass  refers 
to  the  fragrant  odor  of  the  foliage.  Fragrant 
baskets,  boxes  and  mats  are  woven  of  the 
long  leaves  of  the  sterile  shoots,  by  the 
American  Indians.  Commonly  called 
holy -grass  in  Europe.  {Hierochloe 
R.  Br.) 

227.  Anthoxanthum  L. — Inflores- 
cence a  bronze-green  spike-like  panicle. 
One  species,  A.  odoratu7n  (Fig.  32), 
sweet  vernal  grass,  a  native  of  Europe, 
introduced  in  the  cooler  parts  of  the 
United  States.  Like  vanilla-grass,  it 
is  fragrant,  for  which  reason  it  is 
sometimes  cultivated  as  a  constitu- 
ent of  meadow-grasses  to  impart  a 
pleasant  odor  to  the  hay.  Sweet  ver- 
nal grass  is  useless  as  a  forage-grass. 

A.  aristatum  Boiss.  {A.  Puelii 
Lecoq  &  Lamotte),  an  annual  species 
is  sometimes  cultivated  in  the  west 
and  southwest. 


Anthoxanthum  odoratum  L.  Sweet  vernal 
grass.  Perennial;  culms  in  tufts,  without 
rhizomes,  erect,  slender,  smooth,  1  to  2  feet 
high;  sheaths  smooth  or  somewhat  pubescent; 
ligule  membranaceous,  2  to  5  mm.  long; 
blades  flat,  thin,  scabrous,  1  to  3  inches  long, 
M 


Fig.  33.  Phalari.s  arun- 
dinacea.  Inflorescence, 
X}'2l  spikelet  and  fertile 
floret,   X5. 


194 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


mostly  basal,  one  about  the  middle  of  the  culm,  the  upper  portion 
of  the  culm  naked;  panicle  dense,  spike-like,  bronze-green,  1  to  3 
inches  long,  narrowed  above  and  below,  the  short  branches  spread- 
ing in  flower;  spikelets  8  to  10  mm.  long,  lanceolate,  acuminate, 
the  glumes  sparsely  pilose,  acuminate,  the  first  membranaceous, 
about  half  as  long  as  the  somewhat  indurated  second  glume,  the 
first  sterile  lemma  short-awned  below  the  apex,  the  second  bearing 
a  strong  bent  scarcely  exserted  awn  near 
its  base,  both  exceeding  the  chestnut- 
brown,  smooth  and  shining  fertile  lemma 
and  palea.  Common  in  grassland  in  the 
northeastern  states. 

228.  Phalaris  L. — Inflorescence  a 
short  or  long  usually  dense  spike- 
like panicle.  The  spike  is  often 
white  or  variegated  with  green  from 
the  green  nerves  of  the  spikelets,  and 
is  usually  papery  at  maturity.  One 
of  our  native  species,  P.  arundinacea 
L.  (Fig.  33),  reed  canary-grass,  is  a 
perennial  found  in  the  northern 
portion  of  the  United  States,  where 
it  furnishes  an  excellent  quality  of 
wild  hay.  In  this  species  the  sterile 
lemmas  are  much  reduced  and  are 
closely  appressed  to  the  fertile 
lemma  and  palea.  A  variety  of  this 
(var.  pida  L.)  with  leaves  striped 
with  white  is  cultivated  for  ornament 
under  the  name  of  ribbon-grass  or 
gardener's  garters.  P.  carolinianus 
Walt.,  a  perennial  of  the  southern 
United  States,  is  cultivated  to  a 
limited  extent  for  winter  forage. 
Another  species,   P.  canariensis   L., 


Fig.  34.  Phalaris  canari- 
ensis. Inflorescence,  X  1^2', 
glumes  and  fertile  floret 
with  the  pair  of  sterile 
lemmas,  X5. 


PIIALARIDE^  195 

canary-grass,  an  annual  with  ovate  heads,  is  an  occasional 
weed  introduced  from  Europe.  This  is  grown  in  Europe 
for  the  seed  which  furnishes  the  canary  seed  of  commerce. 
Canary  seed  usually  contains  also  the  seed  of  Panicum 
miliaceum.  The  seed  of  Phalaris  canariensis  (Fig.  34)  is  pale  yel- 
low, 5  mm.  long,  elliptical-lanceolate,  laterally  somewhat  flattened 
but  equally  convex  on  both  sides,  hard  and  shining  and  more  or  less 
pubescent.  The  fruit  of  Panicum  miliaceum  is  pale,  brownish  or 
reddish,  about  as  long  as  canary-grass  seed  but  much  more  plump, 
dorsally  flattened  on  one  side,  the  palea  being  inclosed  or  overlapped 
by  the  lemma,  the  whole  smooth,  hard,  shining,  and  faintly  nerved. 
The  seed,  when  removed  from  the  inclosing  lemma  and  palea  is 
nearly  white,  somewhat  globular  with  a  notch  in  one  side,  pearly 
in  appearance.  The  fruit  of  common  or  foxtail  millet  {Chsetochloa 
italica)  differs  from  that  of  Panicum  miliaceum  in  being  some- 
what smaller  and  faintly  cross-wrinkled,  and  in  the  appearance  of 
the  palea,  which  presents  2  ridges  near  the  margin  representing 
the  2  keels.    (See  Figs.  21  and  25.) 


CHAPTER  XX 

Tribe  VIII.    AGROSTIDE^ 

A  LARGE  tribe  of  about  50  genera  inhabiting  more 

especially  the  temperate  and  cooler  regions  of  the  world. 

Spikelets   1 -flowered  (the  rachilla  prolonged   as  a  stipe 

behind  the  palea  in  a  few  genera)  usually  perfect,  arranged 

in  open,  contracted  or  spike-like  panicles,  but  not  in  1 -sided 

spikes  or  racemes.    The  spikelets  are  jointed  with  the 

pedicel  in  a  few  genera,  and  fall  off  entire  (Alopecurus, 

Cinna,   Polypogon,   Lycurus,   Limnodea).     The  palea  is 

usually  2-nerved  but  in  Cinna  it  appears  to  be  1 -nerved, 

the  2  nerves  lying  close  together.     In  some  species  of 

Agrostis  the  palea  is  a  small  nerveless  scale  or  is  wanting. 

In  some  genera  the  floret  is  raised  slightly  from  the  glumes 

on  a  hard  stipe,  the  short  internode  of  the  rachilla.    This 

remains  attached  to  the  floret  at  maturity  as  a  hard  point 

and  is  called  the  callus.    This  .callus  is  pronounced  in 

Stipa  and  Aristida  and    less   so  in  Oryzopsis,  Muhlen- 

bergia  and  a  few  other  genera.   In  some  species  of  Calama- 

grostis  the  short  callus  bears  numerous  silky  hairs  as  long 

as  the  floret. 

Key  to  the  Genera  of  Agrostide^ 

A.  Lemma  indurated  at  maturity,  firmer  than 
the  glumes,  closely  enveloping  the  caryopsis 
and  usually  the  palea,  awned  (except  in 
Milium)  from  the  tip,  or  mucronate  (some 
species  of  Muhlenbergia). 
B.  Awn    trifid    (the    lateral    awns    sometimes 

short,  rarely  wanting) Aristida 

Bii.  Awn  simple.  (Par.  229). 

(196) 


AGROSTIDEM  197 

c.  Spikelets  in  pairs  in  a  spike-like  panicle; 
one  perfect,  the  other  staminate  or  neu- 
tral, the  pair  deciduous  together Lycurus. 

cc.  Spikelets  all  ahke. 

D.  Rachilla  prolonged  behind  the  palea  as 
a   pedicel;    glumes  very  short;   inflo- 
rescence a  narrow  few-flowered  panicle.BRACHYELY- 
DD.  Rachilla  not  prolonged.  [trum. 

E.  Lemma  awnless;   fruit  short,  ovoid; 

inflorescence  an  open  panicle Milium. 

EE.  Lemma  awned  or  mucronate. 

F.  Awn  slender,  straight  or  flexuous, 
not  twisted  nor  bent;  spikelets 
small;   glumes    shorter   than   the 

lemma Muhlen- 

FP.  Awn  usually  stout,  bent  or  twisted.         [bergia. 
G.  Awn    stout,    twisted    and    bent,  (Par.  2.'51 ). 

persistent;  callus  pointed,  long; 

lemma  narrow Stipa 

GG.  Awn  bent  but  not  twisted,  de-  (Par.  230 j. 

ciduous;  callus  short;  obtuse; 
lemma     broad,     elliptical     or 

ovate Oryzopsis. 

AA.  Lemma    not    indurated    at    maturity,    mem- 
branaceous or  hyaline,   like  the  glumes  or 
more  delicate. 
B.  Glumes    none;    low    annual.    Oregon    and 

Washington Schmidtia. 

BB.  Glumes  present. 

c.  Glumes  falling  with  the  spikelet,  some- 
times with  a  portion  of  the  pedicel  or 
branchlet,  the  articulation  being  below 
the  glumes  (compare  Cinna). 

D.  Glumes  long-awned Polypogon. 

DD.  Glumes  awnless. 

E.  Inflorescence  a  dense  spike-like  pan- 
icle; lemma  awned  from  the  lower 

part  of  the  back Alopecurus 

EE.  Inflorescence  a  narrow  loose  panicle;  (Par.  233). 

lemma  awned  from  the  bifid  apex.  .Limnodea. 
cc.  Glumes  persistent,  not  articulated  on  the 
pedicel. 
D.  Glumes  longer  than  the  lemma. 

E.  Glumes    plumose;    an    annual    with 

woolly  ovoid  heads Lagurtjs 

EE.  Glumes  not  plumose.  (Par.  237). 

F.  Inflorescence  a  dense  cylindrical 
spike-like  panicle;  glumes  com- 
pressed-carinate,    ciliate    on    the  (Par.  232). 

keels ;  lemma  awnless Phleum 


198  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

FT.  Inflorescence  an  open  or  contracted 
but  not  densely  cylindrical  pan- 
icle;    glumes     not     compressed- 
carinate  and  ciliate. 
G.  Glumes  saccate  at  base;  lemma 
long-awned;  inflorescence  con- 
tracted, shining;  annuals Gastridium. 

GG.  Glumes  not  saccate  at  base. 

H.  Lemma  bearing  an  awn  several 
times     its     length;     annuals 

with  open  panicles Apera. 

HH.  Lemma  short-awned,  or  awn- 
less,  the  palea  often  reduced 

or  wanting Agrostis 

DD.  Glumes  as  long  as,  or  shorter  than  the  (Par.  234). 

lemma. 
E.  Lemma   bearing   a   tuft   of  hairs  at 
base  from  the  short  callus. 

F.  Lemma  and  palea  thin Calamagrostis 

FF.  Lemma  and  palea  chartaceous.  (Par.  235). 
G.  Panicles  spike-like;  rachilla  pro- 
longed   Ammophila 

GG.  Panicles  open;  rachilla  not  pro-  (Par.  236). 

longed Calamovilfa. 

EE.  Lemma  without  hairs  at  base. 

F.  Palea   apparently    1-nerved,   the   2 
nerves    close    together;    rachilla 

prolonged ;  panicle  open Cinna. 

ff.  Palea  distinctly  2-nerved;  rachilla 
not  prolonged. 
G.  Nerves  of  lemma  densely  silky. .  Blepharo- 
GG.  Nerves  of  lemma  not  silky.  [neuron. 

H  Fruit     not     inclosed     in     the 
lemma  and  palea,  seed  usually 
also    loose    in    the    pericarp, 
this  opening  at  maturity. . .  .Sporobolus. 
HH.  Fruit   inclosed   in   the  lemma 
and    palea;    the    seed    also 
inclosed   in   the   pericarp   at 
maturity  and   grown   to   it; 
panicles    spike-Like    in    our 
species. 
I.  Panicles    short,     partly    in- 
closed in  the  upper  sheath; 
sparingly  introduced  from 

the  Old  World Heleochloa. 

n.  Panicles  elongated;  tall  per- 
ennials of  Arizona  and 
southward Epicampes. 


AGROSTIDEJE 


199 


229.  Aristida  L. — Needle-grass.  A  large  genus,  mostly 
tufted  perennials  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world, 
especially  abundant  in  America.  They  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  the  narrow  terete  lemma  bearing  a  pointed 
hairy  callus  below  and  a  trifid  awn  above.  The  2  lateral 
awns  are  sometimes  shorter  than  the  others  or  may  be 
absent  altogether  {A . 
scabra  (H.  B.  K.) 
Kunth  and  its  aUies). 
The  species  not  only 
have  little  forage 
value  but  on  the 
contrary  are  often 
troublesome  to 
ranchmen  because  of 
the  sharp  fruits  which 
penetrate  the  skin  of 
grazing  animals.  Sev- 
eral low  perennial 
species  are  found  in 
the  new  soil  around 
the  burrows  of  prairie 
dogs,  hence  the  name 
dog-town  grass. 

230.  Stipa  L.— 
Spear-grass.  A  large 
genus  of  tufted  per- 
ennials found  on  the 
plains  and  steppes 
of  both  hemispheres. 
The  fruit  resembles 
that  of  Aristida  but 
terminates  in  a  single 


Fig.  35.  Aristida  longiseta. 
Spikelet,  the  floret  raised  from 
the  glumes,   XI- 


200 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Siwn.  This  awn  is  usually  tightly  luisted  below,  the 
upper  part  being  once  or  twice  bent.  In  some  species 
(5.  spartea  Trin.)  (Fig.  36)  the  awn  is  stout  and  several 
inches  long;  in  others  it  is  beautifully  plumose  with  silky 

hairs  (S.  pennata  L.  of 
the  Russian  steppes  and 
S.  speciosa  Trin.  &  Rupr. 
of  California).  The  vari- 
ous    species     form     an 
important    part    of    the 
forage  on  the  plains  and 
foothills    of    the    south- 
western   states   and 
Mexico.   The  esparto-  or 
alfa-grass  of   Spain  and 
Algeria     {S.    tenacissima 
L.)  furnishes  a  fiber  that 
is  used  for  paper  and  for 
cordage.     The   sleepy- 
grass    {S.    Vaseyi  Scribn.j   of   Colorado  and    New 
Mexico  because  of  narcotic  qualities  is  injurious  to 
horses.   Two  species  of  the  Old  World  are  said  to 
be   poisonous   (S.  inebrians  Hance  and  S.  sibirica 
Lam.). 

231.  Muhlenbergia  Schreb. — A  large  genus  of 
mostly  American  grasses,  especially  abundant  on  the 
dry  uplands  of  the  southwestern  states  and  Mexico. 
It  grades  on  the  one  hand  into  Sporobolus,  from 
which  it  differs  in  having  an  a^\^led  or  mucronate  lemma, 
and  on  the  other  into  Epicampes,  from  which  it  differs 
in  having  a  relatively  firmer  lemma.  Many  species  are 
important  constituents  of  the  forage  upon  grazing  areas 
in  the   Southwest.     One    species    of    the    alhed    genus 


AGROSTIDE£ 


201 


Fig.  37.  Muhlenbergia  gracilis.  Plant,  X  i--:  spikelet,  the  floret  raised 
from  the  glumes,  glumes  and  floret,  X5.  ^U.  2J.  Dept.  .\gr.,  Div.  Bot., 
BuU.  26.) 


202 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Epicampes  (E.  rigens  Benth.)  is  of  some  economic  im- 
portance in  Mexico,  whence  it  is  exported,  the  strong 
fibrous  roots  being  used  to  make  coarse  brushes. 

232.  Phleum  L.— Timothy.  A  small 
genus  of  cold  regions,  recognized  by  the 
densely  cylindrical  spike-like  panicles,  and 
1-flowered  much-compressed  spikelets.   Only 

1  species  is  native  in  America,  the  moun- 
tain timothy  (P.  alpinum  L.)  of  the  higher 
mountains  and  arctic  regions.  Common 
timothy  (P.  pratense  L.)  (Fig.  38),  a  native 
of  Europe,  is  our  most  important  cultivated 
meadow-grass.  In  some  localities  this  grass 
is  known  as  herd's-grass. 

Phleum  pratense  L.  Timothy.  Perennial;  culms 
in  tufts,  somewhat  bulbous  at  base,  erect,  smooth, 

2  to  3  feet  high ;  sheaths  smooth ;  ligule  membranace- 
ous, 2  to  3  mm.  long  or  the  uppermost  longer; 
blades  flat,  a  few  inches  to  a  foot  long;  panicle 
densely  cylindrical  and  spike-like,  2  to  5  inches 
long,  obtuse;  glumes  about  3  mm.  long,  excluding 
the  1  to  2  mm.  long  awn,  compressed,  abruptly 
rounded  to  the  awn,  long-ciliate  on  the  keel,  the 
lemma  and  palea  about  equal,  thin,  half  as  long  as 

the  glumes. 

233.  Alopecurus  L. — A  small 
genus  of  wide  distribution,  in  cold  tem- 
perate regions  and  in  high  altitudes, 
one  species  of  which,  meadow  foxtail 
{A.  pratensis),  a  native  of  Europe,  is 
occasionally  cultivated  as  a  meadow- 
grass.  This  species  may  be  recognized  by  its  resemblance 
to  timothy  in  having  densely  cylindrical  spike-Hke 
panicles,  but  differing  in  having  awns  on   the  back  of 


Fio.  38.  Phleum  pra- 
tense. Inflorescence,  X  I4t 
glumes  and  mature 
floret,   X7. 


AGROSTIDE^ 


203 


the  lemmas  that  protrude  from  the  spikelets  giving  the 
spike  a  soft  furry  appearance. 

Alopecurus  pratensis  L.  (Fig.  39).  Meadow  foxtail.  Perennial; 
culms  erect  from  a  short  creeping  base,  smooth,  1  to  3  feet  high; 
sheaths  smooth,  the  uppermost 
somewhat  inflated ;  ligule  membra- 
naceous, truncate,  2  to  4  mm. 
long;  blades  flat,  smooth  beneath, 
rough  above,  2  to  6  inches  long; 
panicle  dense,  cylindrical,  1^  to 
3  inches  long,  }4  inch  thick; 
glumes  5  mm.  long,  equal,  awn- 
less,  3-nerved,  ciUate  on  the  keel, 
connate  at  base,  the  broad,  obtuse 
5-nerved  lemma  nearly  as  long, 
bearing  from  near  the  base  a 
slender  dorsal  slightly  bent  awn, 
exserted  about  5  mm. 


234.  Agrostis  L.  — Bent- 
grass.  A  large  genus  found 
all  over  the  world  but 
sparsely  represented  in  tropi- 
cal America.  The  North 
American  species  are  nearly 
all  perennials  and  are  especi- 
ally abundant  in  the  western 
mountains.  Spikelets  1-flow- 
ered;  lemma  delicate,  shorter 
than  the  nearly  equal  glumes, 
often  awned  from  the  back; 
palea  small  or  wanting;  in- 
florescence an  open  or  contracted  panicle.  The  wild  species 
are  mostly  important  constituents  of  grazing  areas  in  the 
mountains.  Redtop  (A.  alba),  cultivated  as  a  meadow- 
grass,  is  a  perennial  1  to  4  feet  tall,  with  rootstocks,  flat 


Fig.  39.  Alopecurus  pratensis.  Plant 
reduced;  spikeletand  floret,  X3.  (U.  S. 
Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agrost.,  Bull.  20.) 


204 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


blades  and  an  erect  open  often  reddish  panicle  usually  4 
to  8  inches  long,  with  verticillate  lower  branches.  A 
smaller  form,  Rhode  Island  bent  (A.  alba  vulgaris),  with 
finer  foliage  and  a  smaller  more  open  panicle,  is  often 
used  for  lawns.  Another  form  of  Agrostis  alba  with 
creeping  stems  and  narrow  panicle  is  used  for  lawns 
under  the  name  of  creeping  bent. 

Agrostis  alba  L.  (Fig.  40)  Redtop.  Peren- 
nial; culms  erect  from  a  more  or  less  decum- 
bent base  bearing  rhizomes,  smooth,  1  to  4  feet 
high;  sheaths  smooth;  ligule  membranaceous, 
pointed,  more  or  less  lacerate,  as  much  as  6 
mm.  long;  blades  flat,  2  inches  to  as  much  as 
a  foot  long,  scabrous  on  both  surfaces,  strongly 
nerved,  acuminate,  usually  rather  stiffly  up- 
right; panicle  2  to  12  inches  long,  open  at 
anthesis  but  usually  more  or  less  contracted 
in  fruit,  the  branches  in  whorls,  some  naked 
below,  others  short  and  spikelet-bearing  at 
base;  glumes  2  to  3  mm.  long,  lanceolate, 
pointed,  scabrous  on  the  keel,  the  lemma  thin, 
a  little  shorter  than  the  glumes,  the  palea  half 
to  two-thirds  as  long  as  the  lemma.  The  color 
of  the  panicle  varies  from  greenish  to  purple  or 
brown.  This  grass  has  escaped  from  cultiva- 
tion or  has  been  introduced  over  a  large  part  of 
the  United  States.  In  the  western  mountains 
the  species  is  doubtfully  native.  This  grass  is 
known  by  the  name  of  herd's-grass  in  some 
localities,  especially  in  Pennsylvania.  In  Eng- 
land it  is  called  fiorin. 

Agrostis  alba  vulgaris  (With.)  Thurb.  Rhode 

Island  bent.    Differs  from  the  preceding  in  the 

smaller  size,  more  delicate 

culms  and  foliage,  smaller 

and  especially  more  open 

and  fewer-flowered  panicle, 
I'k;.  40.    .\grostis  alba.    Inflorescence  and  .,.  ,  ,         , i       ■„ 

rhizomes.  xH;spikelet,  X5.  this     not     contracted     m 


AGROSTIDEjE 


205 


fruit.  The  ligule  is  often  shorter  and  usually  truncate.  This  form 
is  common  in  grass  lan(i  in  the  northeastern  states,  where  it  is 
introduced  or  escaped  from  cul- 
tivation. 

Agrostis  alba  maritima 
(Lam.)  G.  F.  W.  Mey.  Creep- 
ing bent.  Differs  from  redtop 
in  its  creeping  or  stoloniferous 
stems  and  narrow  panicles,  the 
blades  mostly  short  and  ap- 
pressed.  Native  along  the  North 
Atlantic  coast  of  America  and 
Europe,  and  the  Pacific  coast 
from  central  California  to  British 
Columbia.  The  form  cultivated 
for  lawns  appears  to  have  been 
derived  from  this. 

Rhode  Island  bent.  In 
botanical  literature  this  name 
has  been  applied  to  Agrostis 
canina  L.,  a  grass  similar  in 
appearance  to  A.  alba  vulgaris, 
but  usually  more  dehcate,  the 
glumes  about  2  mm.  long,  the 
lemma  about  three-fourths  as 
long  as  the  glumes,  bearing  a 
little  below  the  middle  a  bent 
exserted  awn,  the  palea  wanting. 
This  is  a  native  of  Europe  and 
is  rare  in  America.  There  is  no 
evidence  that  this  species  has 
been  cultivated  in  Europe  or 
America.  The  seed  sold  under 
the  name  Rhode  Island  bent  is 
imported  from  Europe,  and  consists  for  the  most  part  of  some  form 
of  Agrostis  alba,  usually  of  creeping  bent,  or  the  form  described 
above  under  A .  alhn  vulgaris. 

235,  Calamagrostis  Adans. — A  large  genus  of  peren- 
nials  growing   in  the   cooler  regions   of   all   continents. 


Fig.  41.  Calamagrostis  scabra.  Plant 
reduced;  spikelet,  the  floret  raised  from 
the  glumes,  X3.  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div. 
Agrost.,  Bull.  20.) 


206 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Spikelets  1-flowered,  the  rachilla  prolonged;  lemma  awned 
from  the  back,  surrounded  by  a  tuft  of  callus  hairs ;  inflo- 
rescence an  open  or  contracted  panicle.  A  common  con- 
stituent of  native  meadows  in  the  northern  temperate  and 
arctic  regions  of  America.  Bluejoint, 
C.  canadensis  (Michx.)  Beauv.,  is  com- 
monly cut  for  hay  from  Montana  to 
Minnesota.  This  is  a  perennial  with 
creeping  rhizomes,  erect  culms  3  to  5 
feet  high  and  a  rather  open  panicle 
resembling  that  of  redtop.  Another 
species,  pine-grass  C.  rubescens  Buckl. 
(C.  Suksdorfii  Scribn.),  is  an  excellent 
range-grass  in  the  mountains  of  eastern 
Oregon  and  Washington.  Calamagrostis 
scabra  Presl  (erroneously  referred  to  C. 
Langsdorfii)  (Fig.  41)  is  a  common 
grass  along  the  coast  of  Alaska  and  in 
open  grass  lands  of  British  Columbia. 
236.  Ammophila  Host. — Beach- 
grass.  Marram-grass.  A  genus  of  1  or 
2  species,  allied  to  Calamagrostis  from 
which  it  differs  in  its  strongly  com- 
pressed spikelets  and  chartaceous 
lemma  and  palea,  the  lemma  awnless. 
The  common  species  is  A.  arenaria  (L.) 
Link  (Fig.  42),  which  grows  in  sand- 
dunes  of  the  north  Atlantic  coast  of 
Europe  and  America.  It  is  found  also 
on  the  sand-dunes  along  the  east  and 
arenaria.  "  infloJ^sMn'ee     south   shores   of   Lake  Michigan.    It 

and     lower    portion    of  ,  ^  •       i  •  • 

plant.  X  M.  (u.  s.Dept.     produces    extcnsivcly    creepmg    root- 
NJ.i4.r"    ^'^"^'^■'  "  ■     stocks  because  of  which,  and  because 


AGROSTIDEJE  207 

the  culms  are  able  to  push  upward  when  buried,  it  can 
grow  in  drifting  sand.  It  has  been  utilized  as  a  sand- 
binder  in  Europe  and  more  recently  in  America,  especially 
on  Cape  Cod  and  in  Golden  Gate  Park,  San  Francisco. 
In  Europe  marram-grass  is  used  also  for  paper-making. 

237.  Lagurus  L. — The  one  species,  L.  ovatus  L.,  a 
native  of  Europe,  is  cultivated  as  an  ornamental  grass  for 
dry  bouquets.  It  is  an  annual  with  ovoid  woolly  heads, 
and  narrow  pointed  plumose  glumes. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

Tribe  IX.     AVENE^ 

A  MODERATELY  large  tribe  of  about  30  genera,  found  in 
the  cooler  parts  of  the  world.  Spikelets  2-  to  several- 
flowered,  in  open  or  contracted  panicles  or  sometimes  in 
racemes;  lemmas  usually  shorter  than  the  glumes,  usually 
awned  on  the  back  or  from  between  the  teeth  of  a  bifid 
apex,  the  awn  bent  and  often  twisted,  the  callus  and 
usually  the  rachilla-joints  hairy.  Only  a  few  of  the  genera 
are  found  in  America.  In  all  these  except  Aira,  an  intro- 
duced genus,  there  is  a  prolongation  of  the  rachilla  behind 
the  uppermost  floret;  and  except  in  some  species  of  Spheno- 
pholis  and  in  the  American  species  of  Koeleria  the  lemma  is 
awned.  These  genera  are  usually  placed  in  Festucese,  but 
in  all  characters  except  the  absence  of  the  awn  they  show 
affinity  with  the  genera  of  Aveneae. 

Key  to  Genera  of  Avene^ 

A.  Articulation  below  the  glumes,  these  deciduous 
with  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  spikelet. 
B.  Glumes  longer  than  the  2  florets,  pubescent.. Notholcus 
BB.  Glumes   shorter    than    the    2   or    3    florets,  (Par.  238). 

glabrous  or  scabrous,  the  second  widened 

above Sphenopholis. 

AA.  Articulation   above  the  glumes  and  between 
the  florets. 
B.  Lemma  awnless  or  mucronate;  inflorescence 

a  spike-like  panicle;  an  erect  perennial. . .  .Kcelekia. 
BB.  Lemma  awned. 

c.  RachiUa  not  prolonged;  spikelets  2-flow- 

ered;  delicate  introduced  annuals Aira. 

cc.  Rachilla  prolonged  behind  the  uppermost 
floret. 

(208) 


AVENE^  209 

D.  Awn  arising  from  between  the  teeth  of 
the  bifid  apex,  flattened,  twisted;  in- 
florescence a  simple  panicle  or  reduced 
to  a  raceme  or  even  to  a  single  spikelet.DANTHONiA. 
DD.  Awn  dorsal. 

E.  Lower  floret  of  the  2-flowered  spike- 
let  staminate Arrhenath- 

EE.  Lower  floret  perfect.  [erum  (Par.  241). 

F.  Spikelets    large,    the    glumes   over 

1  cm.  long AvENA 

FF.  Spikelets  less  than  1  cm.  long.  (Par.  239). 

G.  Lemma   keeled,    bidentate;   awn 

arising  from  above  the  middle.. Trisetum. 
GG.  Lemma  convex;  awn  from  below 

the  middle Deschampsia. 

238.  Notholcus  Nash. — A  genus  of  several  species  of 
Europe  and  Africa,  one  of  which,  velvet-grass  {N.  lanatus), 
is  introduced  in  America.  This  is  sometimes  cultivated  as 
a  meadow-grass  but  has  little  forage  value.  As  it  thrives 
better  than  other  meadow-grasses  upon  poor  soil  it  is 
utilized  for  sterile  ground.  It  has  escaped  in  many  parts 
of  the  United  States  especially  on  the  Pacific  coast.  Velvet- 
grass  is  an  erect  perennial  with  velvety  foliage  and  a 
narrow  panicle,  expanded  in  flower.  (Holcus  L.  in  part.) 

Notholcus  lanatus  (L.)  Nash.  (Fig.  4.3).  Velvet-grass.  Perennial; 
culms  erect,  1  to  3  feet  high,  pubescent;  sheaths  velvety  especially- 
near  the  node;  hgule  pubescent,  membranaceous,  about  2  mm.  long, 
more  or  less  toothed  and  ciliate;  blades  flat,  velvety,  mostly  2  to  4 
inches  long;  panicle  oblong,  2  to  4  inches  long,  pale  or  purplish,  in 
flower  spreading  and  rather  open,  in  fruit  contracted;  spikelets  4  to 
5  mm.  long,  the  glumes  pubescent,  longer  than  the  florets,  ciliate 
on  the  nerves,  the  upper  broader,  3-nerved,  the  awn  of  the  second 
floret  hooked.  A  common  weed  from  Puget  Sound  to  San  Francisco, 
in  moist  and  dry  soil. 

239.  Avena  L. — Oats.  Mostly  annuals  with  large 
spikelets,  of  which  the  common  cultivated  oat  {A.  saliva)  is 
the  most  familiar  example.  The  drooping  spikelets  are  in 
open  panicles.  The  large  and  papery  glumes  are  longer  than 

N 


210 


A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


the  lemmas,  the  latter  being  awnless  or  bearing  a  straight 
awn.  A  wild  species  (A.fatua)  differs  in  having  the  lemma 
covered  with  brown  hairs  and  in  having  a  stout  geniculate 
twisted  dorsal  awn  attached  near  the  base.  This  species 
is  a  native  of  Europe  but  is  introduced  on  the  Pacific 
coast  where  it  is  a  common  weed  known  as  wild  oats  and 
where  it  is  often  used  for  hay. 

Avena  saliva  L.    Cultivated  oat.   An- 
nual; culms  erect,  tufted,  smooth,  2  to  4 
feet   high;   sheaths   smooth,    striate,    the 
lower  rather  papery;  ligule  membranace- 
ous, truncate,  1  to  3  mm.  long,  toothed  or 
serrate,  decurrent  along  the  margin  of  the 
sheath;    blades  flat,  as    much   as    1    foot 
long  and  ]/2  inch  wide,  scabrous  especially 
on  the  margins;  panicle  open  or  more  or 
less  contracted,  erect   or   nodding,   some- 
times  1-sided,  the   pedicels  thickened  at 
the  apex;  spikelets  large,  drooping,  vari- 
able in  size  but  usually  about  ^  to  1  inch  long, 
the    glumes   strongly   several  -  nerved,  membra- 
naceous, acuminate,  scabrous,  containing  usually 
2  florets,  the  lemmas  smooth  or  slightly  hairy  at 
the  base,  the  teeth   acute  but  not  awned,  the 
dorsal  awn  absent  or,  if  present,  usually  straight 
and  not  much  exceeding  the  glumes,  often  pre- 
sent only  on  the  lower  floret,  the  palea  inclosed 
by  the  inrolled  margin  of   the  lemma,  densely 
short-ciUate  on  the  2  keels.    The  florets 
do   not  easily  disarticulate,   a   condition 
probably  due  to  cultivation.     Commonly 
cultivated  and  often  escaped  from  fields 
and   in  the   vicinity  of   elevators,   mills, 
railroads  and  in  waste  places,  but  rarely 
established  permanently.    There  are  sev- 
Fio.  43.  Notholeuslanatus.    era!  races  or  possibly  species  in  cultiva- 

Inflorescence    X^s;   spikelet,     ^^^^       rpj^^  ^^^^^   ^^t  {A.  nuda  L.)  difi"ers 

the   two   florets   raised    from  ^  ' 

the  glumes,  X7.  in   having   more    than    2   florets    and    in 


AVENE^ 


211 


having  the  caryopsis  loosely  and  not  permanently  inclosed  in  the 
nerved  lemma. 

Avena  fatua  L.  (Fig.  44).  Wild  oats.  Differs  from  A.  saliva 
chiefly  in  the  spikelet  characters.  Florets  easily  disarticulating,  the 
lemma  beset  with  stiff  usually  brown  hairs, 
these  more  abundant  at  base,  the  teeth  acute 
as  in  ^.  saliva,  the  dorsal  awn  well  developed, 
over  an  inch  long,  geniculate,  twisted  at  base, 
usually  brown.  A  common  weed  on  the 
Pacific  coast  and  occasional  elsewhere. 

Avena  fatua  glabrata 
Peterm.  Differs  from  A.  fatua 
in  having  nearly  or  quite  gla- 
brous lemmas.  This  form  can 
be  distinguished  from  the  usual 
forms  of  A.  saliva  by  the 
strong  awn  and  by  the  easily  disarticulating 
spikelets. 

Avena  barbata  Brot.  Differs  from  A.  fatua  in 
having  more  slender  panicle  branches  and  in  the 
awned  teeth  of  the  lemma.  A  common  weed  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  and  a  constituent  of  the  wild 
oats  of  that  region. 

Avena  sterilis  L.  Animated  oats.  Differs  from 
A .  fatua  in  having  larger  spikelets,  the  glumes  nearly  2  inches  long, 
and  awns  about  2  inches  long.  An  occasional  weed  and  some- 
times cultivated  as  a  curiosity,  the  "seeds"  moving  about  as  the 
awns  twist  and  untwist.  This  motion  is  due  to  the  absorption  or 
loss  of  moisture. 


Fio.  44.  Avena 
fatua.  Spikelet  and 
a  lower  Horet,  XI. 


240.  Origin  of  the  cultivated  oats. — Trabut  has  shown 
that  our  cultivated  oats  are  derived  from  at  least  three 
wild  species.  Avena  fatua  is  the  parent  of  most  of  the 
varieties  cultivated  in  America,  and  in  general  the  va- 
rieties of  temperate  and  mountain  regions.  The  Algerian 
oat  grown  in  North  Africa  and  Italy  is  derived  from 
Avena  sterilis.  A  few  varieties  such  as  Avena  strigosa, 
adapted   to   dry   countries,   are   descended   from   Avena 


212 


A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


barbata.    (See  Translation  of  Trabut's  article  in  Journal 

of  Heredity  5:  56.    1914.) 

241.  Arrhenatherum  Beauv. — To  this 
small  genus  belongs  the  tall  oat-grass  {A. 
elatius),  a  tall  perennial  with  narrow  pani- 
cles of  spikelets  similar  to  those  of  the  oat 
but  smaller,  about  8  mm.  long,  2-flowered, 
the  first  floret  staminate  and  awned,  the 
second  perfect  and  nearly  awnless.  This  is 
a  native  of  Europe  and  now  cultivated 
occasionally  in  this  country  as  a  meadow- 
grass,  especially  in  mixtures.  It  is  also  called 
Randall-grass. 

Arrhenatherum   elatius  (L.)  Beauv.     (Fig.  45.) 
Tall  oat-grass.  Perennial;  culms  erect,  smooth,  3  to 
4  feet  high,  sheaths  smooth;  ligule  membranaceous, 
truncate,  about  1  mm.  long;  blades  narrow,  usually 
not  over  3<t  inch  wide,  scabrous  on  both  surfaces; 
panicle  long  and  narrow,  rather  loose,  6  to  10  inches 
long,  pale  or   purplish,  shining,  the  short  branches 
verticillate,  usually  spikelet-bearing  from  the  base; 
spikelets  7  to  8  mm.  long,  the  glumes  minutely  sca- 
brous,   unequal,    the    second    nearly   as 
long  as  the  florets;  lemmas  scabrous,  the 
awn  of  the  staminate  floret  about  twice 
the  length  of  its  lemma,  geniculate,  sca- 
brous.  Often    escaped   from   cultivation 
and  a  weed  in  waste  places  in  the  humid 
region. 

Arrhenatherum  elatius  bulbosum  (Presl) 
Koch.  Differs  from  the  preceding  in  pro- 
ducing corms  at  the  base  of  the  stems. 
These  corms  are  5  to  10  mm.  in  diameter 
in  clusters  of  usually  2  to  5  in  moniUform 
Fig.  4.").    Arrhenatherum        strings.  An  occasional  introduction,  from 

elatius.    Inflorescence,  XH;  tt-      •    •  iu  i 

spikelct,  X4.  Virgmia  southward. 


CHAPTER  XXII 

Tribe  X.     CHLORIDEiE 

A  MODERATELY  large  tribe  of  about  30  genera,  mostly 
of  warm  regions.  It  can  be  recognized  by  its  1-sided  spikes 
or  spike-like  racemes,  the  spikelets  borne  in  2  rows  on 
one  side  of  a  continuous  rachis.  Spikelets  1-  to  many- 
flowered,  usually  articulated  above  the  glumes.  The 
spike  is  reduced  to  2  or  3  spikelets  or  even  to  1  spikelet 
in  some  species  of  Bouteloua  and  allied  genera.  In  the 
dioecious  genus  Bulbilis  the  pistillate  spikelets  are  in  a 
small  cluster  among  the  leaves,  but  the  staminate  inflo- 
rescence is  characteristic  of  the  tribe.  Some  species  of 
Leptochloa  approach  the  tribe  Festucese,  the  spikes  not 
being  strictly  1-sided.  In  some  species  of  Bouteloua  the 
small  spikes  are  deciduous  from  the  main  axis,  thus  resem- 
bling Nazieae. 

Key  to  the  Genera  of  Chlorides 

A.  Plants    dicEcious    or    monoecious;    low    stolo- 

niferous  perennials Bulbilis 

AA.  Plants  with  perfect  flowers.  (Par.  245). 
B.  Spikelets  with  more  than  1  perfect  floret, 
c.  Spikes  sohtary,  the  spikelets  distant,  ap- 
pressed,    several-flowered;    a    low    per- 
ennial   Tripogon. 

cc.  Spikes  more  than   1    (exceptionally   1  in 
Eleusine). 
D.  Spikes    numerous,    slender,    along    an 

elongated  axis Leptochloa. 

DD.  Spikes  few,  digitate  or  nearly  so;  annual 
weeds. 
E.  Rachis  of  spike  extending  beyond  the  [tenium. 

spikelets Dactyloc- 

(213) 


214  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

EE.  Rachis  not  prolonged Eleusine. 

BB.  Spikelets   with   only  1  perfect  floret,  often 

with    additional    imperfect    or    modified 

florets  above,  sometimes  also  below. 

c.  Spikelets     without     additional     modified 

florets,  the  rachilla  sometimes  prolonged. 

D.  Rachilla  articulated  below  the  glumes. 

E.  Glumes  narrow,  unequal Spartina. 

EE.  Glumes     equal,     broad     and     boat- 
shaped  Beckmannia. 

DD.  Rachilla  articulated  above  the  glumes. 
E.  Spikes    digitate;    plants    extensively 

creeping Capriola 

(Par.  242). 
EE.  Spikes  racemose;  plants  cespitose. .  .  .Schedonnardus 
cc.  Spikelets  with  1  or  more  modified  florets 
above  the  perfect  one. 
D.  Spikelets  with  2  sterile  florets  below  the 

perfect  one Campulosus. 

DD.  Spikelets  with  no  sterile  florets  below 
the  perfect  one. 
E.    Spikes  digitate. 

F.  Fertile  lemma  1-awned  or  awnless..CHLORis 

(Par.  243). 

PF.  Fertile  lemma  3-awned Trichloris. 

EE.  Spikes  racemose. 

F.  Spikelets  distant;  spikes  slender Gymnopogon. 

FF.  Spikelets    approximate,    often    im- 
bricated. 
G.  Spikes  usually  short  and  rather 
stout,  sometimes  with  only  1 

to  few  spikelets Bouteloua 

(Par.  244). 

242.  Capriola  Adans. — A  small  genus  of  Old  World 
grasses,  one  of  which,  Bermuda-grass  (C  Dadylon),  has 
been  introduced  in  America  and  is  now  common  in  the 
tropics  and  warmer  regions  as  far  north  as  Maryland  and 
southern  Kansas.  This  is  a  low  perennial,  producing 
extensively  creeping  stolons  and  rhizomes  and  erect  flower- 
culms,  a  few  inches  to  a  foot  or  more  in  height,  ending  in 
3  to  6  slender  digitate  spikes.  It  is  an  excellent  grass  for 
lawns  and  pastures  in  the  southern  states  but  in  cultivated 
fields  often  becomes  a  troublesome  weed.    In  soft  soil  it 


CHLORIDES 


215 


forms  large  rhizomes  and  coarse  foliage  but  in  lawns  the 
foliage  is  fine  and  the  plants  are  stoloniferous.  Although 
called  Bermuda-grass  it  is  not  a  native  of  Bermuda. 
(Cynodon  Rich.) 

Capriola  Dactylon  (L.)  Kuntze  {Cynodon  Dadylon  (L.)  Pers.). 
(Fig.  46.)  Bermuda-grass.  A  gray-green  perennial;  culms  exten- 
sively creeping,  either  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  forming  rhi- 
zomes, or  above  ground  forming  stolons,  the  fertile  shoots  ascend- 
ing, smooth,  a  few  inches  to  as  much  as  2  feet  in  height;  sheaths 
smooth,  flattened  and  keeled,  vil- 
lous on  each  side  at  the  throat; 
ligule  a  very  short  ciliate-fringed 
membrane;  blades  flat,  2  to  4  mm. 
wide,  3^  to  2  inches  long  or  on 
sterile  shoots  sometimes  much 
more  or  less  scabrous,  at 
least  on  the  margin,  sharp-pointed ; 
inflorescence  consisting  of  3  to  6 
slender  ascending  spikes  1  to  2 
inches  long,  digitate  at  the  summit 
of  the  culms,  pubescent  at  the  base, 
the  rachis  Ja  to  H  imxi.  wide;  spike- 
lets  much  compressed,  often  pur- 
plish, ovate,  about  23^  "mm.  long; 
glumes  narrow,  pointed,  scabrous 
on  the  keel,  shorter  than  the  spike- 
let,  the  lemma  pubescent  on  the 
margin  and  often  also  on  the  keel. 

Fig.  46.    Capriola  Dactylon.     Plant  show- 
ing stolons,   X?3;  spikelet,  X7. 


216 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


The  spikelets  face  alternately  to  the  right  and  left,  often  apparently 
in  a  single  row.    In  Europe  this  grass  is  called  dog's-tooth,  refer- 
ring to  the  tooth-shaped  old  sheaths  on  the  runners,  and  cock's-foot, 
referring    to   the   digitate   inflores- 
cence.   In  the  British  West  Indies 
it  is  called  Bahama-grass. 

243.  Chloris  Swartz.~A 
moderate-sized  genus,  many 
annual  species  of  which  are 
weeds  in  the  tropics.  On  ac- 
count of  the  silky  spikes  they 
are  usually  handsome  grasses. 
One  species,  C.  Guyana  Kunth, 
has  been  introduced  in  the 
southern  states  as  a  meadow- 
grass  under  the  name  of 
Rhodes  -  grass.  (See  "Some 
New  Grasses  for  the  South," 
Yearbook,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 
1912.) 

244.  Bouteloua  Lag. — 
Grama-grasses.  A  genus  of 
about  30  species,  all  Ameri- 
can, especially  abundant  in 
southwestern  United  States 
and  on  the  Mexican  plateau. 
They  are  important  grazing- 
grasses. 

Bouteloua  gracilis  (H.B.K.)  Lag.  (B.  oligostachya Torr.).  (Fig. 
47.)  Perennial;  culms  smooth,  tufted,  erect,  6  to  18  inches  high; 
sheaths  smooth,  or  the  lower  somewhat  villous,  bearing  at  the 
throat  a  tuft  of  long  hairs  on  each  side;  hgule  very  short;  blades 
mostly  basal,  flat  or  usually  involute,  flexuous  or  curly,  1  to  2  mm. 
wide,  2  to  4  inches  long,  scabrous  on  the  margin;  spikes  usually  2, 


Fig.  47.    Bouteloua  gracilis.    Inflores- 
cence, X  1;  spikelet,   XIO. 


CHLORIDES 


217 


1  terminal,  the  other  a  short  distance  below,  both  nearly  sessile 
and  more  or  less  ascending,  about  an  inch  long,  somewhat  curved; 
spikelets  sessile,  about  5  mm.  long,  densely  crowded  on  one  side  of 
the  pubescent  rachis;  glumes  narrow,  the  upper  villous  and  more  or 
less  beset  with  dark  papilla;,  the  lemma  pubescent;  rudiment 
rounded,  3-awned.  The  end  of  the  rachis  does  not  project  beyond 
the  spikelets.  The  spikes  turn  with  the  wind  Uke  vanes.  In  the 
less  arid  portions  of  the  Great  Plains  this  species  forms  a  rather 
compact  sod;  in  drier  regions  the  tufts  are  isolated.  This  is  some- 
times called  blue  grama  but  to  stockmen  it  is  usually  known  merely 
as  grama.  It  is  the  most  important  economic  species  of  the  genus, 
ranging  on  the  Great  Plains  from  Manitoba  to  South  America  and 
westward  into  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  .southern  California. 

Bouteloua  hirsuia  Lag.  Black  grama.  Resembles  the  preceding 
but  differs  in  the  prolongation  of  the  rachis 
as  a  naked  point  5  to  8  mm.  beyond  the 
spikelets,  and  in  the  more  hairy  second 
glumes  with  prominent  black  papilla^.  The 
range  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  pre- 
ceding but  does  not  extend  so  far  north. 

Bouteloua  curtipendula  (Michx.)  Torr. 
Tall  or  Side-oat  grama.  Culms  2  to  3  feet 
high,  the  spikes  numerous,  30  to  50, 
arranged,  by  twisting  of  the  peduncles, 
along  one  side  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
culm  for  6  to  10  inches,  about  }4  inch 
long,  the  spikelets  appressed,  5  to  8  in 
each  spike.  Prairies  and  plains,  from 
Ontario  to  Montana  and  south  through 
Mexico  to  South  America. 


218  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

There  are  many  other  species  in  the  southwestern  states  and 
in  Mexico,  but  the  3  described  above  are  the  best-known  economic 
species. 

245.  Bulbilis  Raf. — Buffalo-grass.  The  single  species, 
B.  dactyloides  (Nutt.)  Raf.  (Buchloe  dactyloides  (Nutt.) 
Engelm.)  (Figs.  48  and  49),  a  common  and  often  the 
dominant  grass  on  the  Great  Plains,  is  a  low  stoloniferous 
perennial  that  forms  a  firm  sod.  The  staminate  inflores- 
cence consists  of  2  or  3  short  1 -sided  spikes  on  a  culm  a 
few  inches  high;  the  pistillate  spikes  are  hidden  among 
the  leaves  near  the  ground. 


Fia.  49.    Bulbilis  dactyloiiles.    Pistillate  plant, 
Xj-i;  cluster  of  spikelets  and   floret,  X4. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
Tribe  XL     FESTUCE^ 

A  LARGE  tribe  of  about  80  genera,  mainly  inhabitants 
of  the  cooler  regions.  Spikelets  more  than  1-flowered, 
usually  several-flowered;  inflorescence  an  open,  narrow 
or  sometimes  spike-like  panicle.  If  the  lemmas  are  awned, 
the  awn  is  straight  and  terminal  or  rarely  from  between 
the  teeth  of  a  bifid  apex  (some  species  of  Bromus  and  a  few 
species  of  Festuca).  The  lemma  is  divided  into  several 
awns  at  the  summit  in  Pappophorum  and  Cottea  and  a 
few  other  genera.  In  some  species  of  Eragrostis  the  palea 
is  persistent  on  the  inarticulate  rachilla.  In  most  of  the 
genera  the  spikelet  breaks  up  at  maturity,  each  floret 
falling  with  a  joint  of  the  rachilla,  the  glumes  being 
persistent  on  the  pedicel.  Scleropogon,  Monanthochloe, 
Distichlis  and  a  few  species  of  Poa  are  dioecious.  The 
blades  are  broad  and  petioled  in  a  few  tropical  genera. 
Gynerium,  Cortaderia,  Arundo  and  Phragmites  are 
tall  reeds. 

Key  to  the  Genera  of  Festuce^ 

A.  Lemmas  divided  at  summit  into  3  to  several 
awns  or  awn-like  lobes  (only  the  pistillate  in 
Scleropogon;  lemmas  more  or  less  3-toothed 
in  Tridens  of  the  next  division). 
B.  Awns  9  or  more. 

c.  Divisions    of    lemma    awn-like,    plumose; 

panicle  spike-like.   Arizona Pappophorum. 

cc.  Divisions    membranaceous,    awn-pointed; 

panicle  open.   Texas  to  Arizona Cottea. 

BB.  Awns  less  than  9. 

(219) 


220  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

c.  Plants  dioecious;  sexes  unlike,  the  pistillate 
lemmas  long-awned,  the  staminate  awn- 
less  or  nearly   so;  southwestern  states 

(burro-grass) Scleropogon. 

cc.  Plants  perfect;  lemmas  broad,  5-lobed; 
spikelets  in  racemes;  annuals.  Cali- 
fornia  Orcuttia. 

AA.  Lemmas  awnless  or  with  1  terminal  awn,  this 

s(nn('timt's  from  between   2   teeth    (more  or 

less  3-toothed  in  Tridens). 

n.  Rachilla  or  lemma  with  hairs  as  long  as  the 

lemma  (only  the  pistillate  in  Cortaderia); 

tall  reeds  with  large  terminal  plume-like 

panicles. 

o.  Plants  dicceious,   the  staminate  spikelets 

naked;  blades  narrow Cortaderia 

cc.  Plants  perfect;  blades  broad.  (Par.  246). 

D.  Lemmas  hairy;  rachilla  naked Arundo 

(Par.  247). 

DD.  Lemmas  naked;  rachilla  hairy Phragmites. 

BB.  Rachilla  and  lemmas  naked  or  pubescent,  not 
with  long  hairs. 
c.  Plants  ditt'cious. 

D.  Plants  low  and  creeping;  spikelets 
obscure,  scarcely  differentiated  from 
the  short  crowded  rigid  leaves;  mud 
flats  along  coast.  Florida  and  Cali- 
fornia  MONANTHO- 

DD.  Plants   erect    from    creeping    rhizomes;  [cHLoi^. 

inflorescence  a  narrow  simple  exserted 

panicle Distichlis 

cc.  Plants  not  dioecious  (except  a  few  species  (Par.  249). 

of  Poa). 
D.  Spikelets  of  2  forms,  sterile  and  fertile 
intermixed. 
e.  Fertile  spikelets  2-  to  3-flowered;  ster- 
ile spikelets  with  numerous  awned 
glumes;   our   species   perennial    (C. 
cristalufi  L.,  crested  dog's-tail,  occa- 
sionally    sown     in     mixtures     for 

meadows) Cynosurus. 

ee  Fertile  spikelets  1-flowered,  long- 
awned;  sterile  spikelets  with  many 
obtuse  glumes;  annual  (A.  aureum 
(L.)  Kuntze,  Lamar  ckia  aurea 
Moench,  golden  top,  occasionally 
cultivated  for  ornament,  commonly 
introduced  on  the  Pacific  coast).. .  .Achyrodes. 
DD.  Spikelets  all  alike. 


FESTUCEAi  221 

E.  Callus  and  nerves  of  lemma  densely 

bearded ;  lemma  3-nerved,  the  nerves 

ending  in  teeth  or  lobes. 

F.  Empty  lemmas  2  below  the  fertile 

floret;    spikelets    with    1    fertile 

floret   and   a   3-awned   rudiment 

above;  low  desert  perennials Blephaiji- 

FF.  Empty    lemmas   none   at    base   of  [dachne. 

spikelets. 
G.  Hairs  not  extending  along  the  3 
conspicuous     nerves     of     the 
lemma;  panicle  large  and  open.REDFiEi.DiA. 
GG.  Hairs  extending  from  the  callus 
along  the  nerves  of  the  lemma. 
H.  Palea  ciliate-fringed ;  midnerve 
excurrent  between  the  lobes 

of  the  lemma Triplasis. 

HH.  Palea  not  ciliate-fringed;  the 
3  nerves  of  the  lemma  often 
extending     into     teeth,     the 

apex  sometimes  2-lobed Tridens. 

EE.  Callus  and  nerves  of  lemma  glabrous 
or  pubescent,  sometimes  cobwebby 
but  not  bearded. 
F.  Plants  tufted  and  creeping,  annual; 
spikelets  hidden  among  the  short 
sharp-pointed  leaves.    Western..  .MuNROA. 
FF.  Plants  with  distinct  inflorescence. 
G.  Lemmas  coriaceous,  rounded  on 
the  back,  smooth  and  shining, 
the  margin  not  scarious. 
H.  Empty  lemmas  1  to  4  at  base  of 
spikelets;   spikelets   strongly 

compressed Uniola. 

HH.  Empty  lemmas  2  to  4  at 
summit  of  spikelet;  spikelets 

not  compressed Diarrhena. 

GG.  Lemmas    membranaceous,    or   if 
somewhat  coriaceous,  the  mar- 
gins scarious. 
H.  Lemmas  3-nerved  (Sphenoph- 
olis  might  be  sought  here). 
I.  Glumes     longer     than     the 

lemmas.    California Dissanthe- 

II.  Glumes     shorter     than     the  [lium. 

lemmas. 
J.  Spikelets  subterete.    Spar- 
ingly   introduced    from 
Europe Molinia. 


222  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

jj.  Spikelets  compressed. 

K.  Spikelets    2-flowered;    ra- 

chilla  articulate Catabrosa. 

KK.  Spikelets  3-  to  many- 
flowered;  rachilla  usually 
continuous,  the  palea 
persistent    after    the    fall 

of  the  lemma Eragrostis 

HH.  Lemmas  5-  to  several-nerved.  (Par.  248). 

I.  Lemmas  flabellate,  many- 
nerved;  spikelets  in  close 
spike-like    panicles;   annual. 

California Anthochloa. 

II.  Lemmas  not  flabellate. 

J.  Spikelets  in  1-sided  fascicles, 
these  in  a  panicle,  the 
branches  spreading  in 
anthcsis,    appressed    at 

maturity Dactylis 

JJ.  Spikelets     not     in     1-sided  (Par.  250). 

fascicles. 
K.  Palea    wing-margined    or 
appendaged  on  the  keels; 
spikelets  long  and  slender, 
in  racemes.    California. .  .  Pleuropogon. 
KK.  Palea  not  wing-margined 
nor  appendaged. 
li.  Callus  bearded   (base  of 
lemma      cobwebby      in 
species  of  Poa)  spikelets 
2-  to  4-flowered. 
M.  Rachilla     pilose,     pro- 
longed above  the  upper 
floret;  lemma  with  a 
short  awn  just  below 

the  tip Graphe- 

MM.  Rachilla     naked,     not  [phorum. 

prolonged ;  lemma  awn- 
less  but  1  or  more  of 
the  nerves   projecting 

beyond  the  apex Scolochloa. 

LL.  Callus  not  bearded. 
M.  Spikelets  as  broad  as 
long,  somewhat  heart- 
shaped;  lemmas  broad, 
closely  imbricated, 
horizontally  spreading. Briza. 
MM.  Spikelets  longer  than 
broad. 


FESTUCE^  223 

N.  Lemmas  papery,  sca- 
rious-margined,   nar- 
row   and    awned    or 
acuminate,  or  broad 
and  obtuse  (the  up- 
per lemmas  then  re- 
duced    to     a     club- 
shaped  rudiment 
enfolded  by  the  up- 
per broad   lemmas); 
spikelets    tawny    or 
purplish,  not  green.  .Melica. 
NN.  Lemmas  not  scarious- 
margined,    or    if 
slightly   so,    only   at 
the   tip,    the   lemma 
green  (Poa). 
o.  Lemma    obscurely 
nerved,  rounded  on 
back,  obtuse,  awn- 
less;  glumes  small, 
much  shorter  than 
lemmas.  Low  plants 
of  the  seashore  and 

of  alkahne  soil Pucoinellia. 

oo.  Lemma     distinctly 
nerved ;    glumes 
nearly    as    long    as 
the  first  lemma. 
p.  Nerves    of    lemma 
prominent,  paral- 
lel; lemma  broad, 
obtuse,  awnless,  8- 

to  9-nerved Panicularia. 

pp.  Nerves    of    lemma 
evident    but    not 
prominent. 
Q.  Lemmas     obtuse 
or  acutish,  awn- 
less,    somewhat 
scarious   at   tip, 
5-nerved,    some- 
times cobwebby 

at  base Poa  (Par.  251). 

QQ.  Lemmas  acute  or 
awned. 
R.  Lemmas  entire, 

often      awned,  (Par.  254), 

rounded  below. Festuca 


224 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


RR.  Lemmas  bifid 
at  apex,  often 
awned  from 
between  the 
teeth ;  spikelets 
large,  some- 
times com- 
pressed   and 


(Par.  258). 


keeled Bromus 

246.  Cortaderia  Stapf. — Pampas-grass.  The  orna- 
mental species,  C.  argentea  (Nees)  Stapf  (Fig.  50),  is  a 
large  reed  growing  in  clumps,  the  blades  numerous,  long 
and  narrow,  drooping,  the  floAver-stalk  tall  and  slender, 
bearing  a  large  silvery  white  or  rosy  plume  1  to  2  feet 
long.  A  native  of  Argentina,  cultivated  for  ornament 
and,  in  California,  on  a  commercial  scale  for  the  plumes. 

Another  species,  C.  jubaia  (Lem.)  Stapf,  with  smaller  and  more 
lax  lavender-colored  plume,  is  occasionally  cultivated.  A  related 
plant,  the  uva-grass  Gynerium  sagittatum  (Aubl.)  Beauv.  {G.  sac- 
charoides  Humb.  &  Bonpl.),  sometimes 
cultivated,  is  a  tall  coarse  leafy  reed, 
12  to  30  feet  high,  with  creeping  root- 
stocks,  the  lower  leaves  soon  dropping, 
leaving  the  stem  naked  below.  Tropi- 
cal America;  not  hardy. 

247.  Anindo  L. — Giant-reed. 
The  species  found  in  the  United 
States,  A.  Donax  L.,  is  a  tall 
stout  reed,  5  to  10  feet  high,  with 
somewhat  woody  finally  much- 
branched  stem,  broad  clasping 
blades  and  large  plumes  or  pani- 
cles. A  native  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  cultivated  in  the 
southern  states  for  ornament.  It 
has     escaped     along     irrigation 


Fig.  .50.  Cortaderia  argen- 
tea. A  group  of  inflorescences 
greatly  reduced;  glumes  of 
pistillate  spikelet  (a),  florets 
of  pistillate  spikelet  (b),  glumes 
(c),  and  florets  dl)  of  staminate 
spikelet.  XI.  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr., 
Div.  Agrcst.,  Bull.  20.) 


FESTUCE^ 


225 


ditches  from  Texas  to  Cali- 
fornia. 

248.  Eragrostis  Host. — 
A  large  genus  of  over  100 
species,  found  throughout 
the  warmer  regions  of  the 
world.  Annuals  or  peren- 
nials with  open,  narrow  or 
spike-like  panicles;  spike- 
lets  many  -  flowered,  awn- 
less;  rachilla  usually  con- 
tinuous, the  paleas  often 
persistent  after  the  fall  of 
the  lemmas  and  fruits.  Sev- 
eral species  are  weeds  intro- 
duced from  the  Old  World. 
One  of  these,  E.  cilianensis 
(All.)  Link  {E.  megastachya 
(Koel.)  Link)  (Fig.  51), 
called  snake-grass  or  stink- 
grass,  emits  a  disagreeable 
odor  from  glands  along  the    recklcedf  ^^splkdlts!  sh'J'wfirg'vaHibie 


number  of  florets;  portion  of  rachilla  from 
which  some  of  the  florets  have  fallen,  X3. 
(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Div.  Agrost.,  Bull.  17.) 


keels  of  the  lemmas.   Teff. 

E.  abyssinica  (Jacq.)  Link, 

is  an   important  food-plant  in  Abyssinia  and  has  been 

tried   in   other   countries    as    a    forage    plant.      Several 

species   are   occasionally   cultivated    for    ornament,   the 

panicles  being  used  for  dry  bouquets. 

249.  Distichlis  Raf. — Salt-grass.  Low  dioecious  per- 
ennials of  seacoasts  and  alkaline  flats.  Only  1  species,  D. 
spicata  (L.)  Greene  (Fig.  52),  is  found  in  the  United 
States.  This  is  common  in  salt-marshes  throughout  the 
country.  The  culms  are  erect  fom  extensively  creeping 
o 


226 


A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


rhizomes,  with  short  distichous  blades  and  narrow  few- 
flowered  panicles  of  many-flowered  spikelets.  In  regions 
where  it  is  abundant,  salt-grass  is  utilized  for  forage,  but 

on  account  of  the  excess 
of  mineral  constituents  it 
is  of  inferior  quality. 

250.  DactyUs  L.— The 
single  species,  D.  glome- 
rata,  a  native  of  Europe, 
is  commonly  cultivated 
as  a  forage  grass  under 
the  name  of  orchard- 
grass.  It  is  a  tussock- 
forming  perennial,  2  to  4 
feet  high,  with  flat  blades 
and  narrow  panicles.  The 
spikelets  are  in  1 -sided 
fascicles  or  small  heads 
at  the  ends  of  the  few 
principal  branches  of  the 
panicle.  These  branches 
spread  at  the  time  of 
flowering  but  close  at 
maturity.  The  lemmas 
are  fringed  or  ciliate  on 
the  sharp  keel. 

Dadylis  glomerata  L.  (Fig. 
53.)  Orchard-grass.  Perennial, 
in  large  tufts  without  creeping  rootstocks;  culms  erect,  smooth,  2  to 
4  feet  high;  sheaths  compressed  and  keeled,  more  or  less  retrorsely 
scabrous,  closed  for  a  portion  of  their  length,  sometimes  nearly  to 
the  throat;  ligule  prominent,  thin  and  papery,  pointed,  usually  lace- 
rate, the  uppermost  as  much  as  3^  inch  long;  blades  flat,  usually 
scabrous  on  both  surfaces,   elongated,  as  much  as  14  inch  wide, 


Fig.  52.  Distichlis  spicata.  Staminate 
plant  (at  left)  and  pistillate  plant  (at 
right)  reduced;  pistillate  and  staminate 
spikelets. 


FESTUCEM 


227 


tapering  into  a  slender  point; 
panicle  3  to  6  inches  long,  the 
branches  few  and  stiff,  singly  dis- 
posed, naked  below,  bearing  a  few 
1-sided  clusters  of  spikelets,  the 
clusters  being  about  3^  inch  wide, 
green  or  purplish;  spikelets  com- 
pressed, about  ]4  inch  long  usu- 
ally 3-  or  4-flowered;  first  glume 
l-nerved,  acute;  second  glume 
longer  than  the  first,  3-nerved, 
acuminate,  ciHate  on  the  keel;  lem- 
mas rather  indistinctly  5-nerved, 
cihate  on  the  keel,  short-awned. 
During  the  flowering  period  the 
branches  are  spread  open  by  the 
turgidity  of  prominent  cushions  of 
tissue  in  the  basal  angle.  Later 
these  cushions  shrink  and  the 
branches  become  appressed  so  that 
in  fruit  the  panicle  is  narrow  and 
almost  spike-like.  The  tufts  of 
orchard-grass  soon  develop  at  the 
base  into  large  tussocks.  In  Eng- 
land this  grass  is  known  as  cock's- 
foot. 

251.  Poa  L. — Blue-grass. 
A  large  genus  of  over  100 
species,  found  throughout  the 
world  in  the  cooler  parts  and 
in  the  high  mountains  of  the 
tropics.  Annuals  or  mostly 
perennials  often  with  creeping 
rhizomes.  Spikelets  in  narrow 
or  open  panicles,  2-  to  6-fiowered ;  lemmas  5-nerved,  awn- 
less,  somewhat  scarious  at  tip,  smooth  or  hairy  on  the 
nerves,  sometimes  cobwebby  at  base.    This  is  one  of  the 


Fig.    53.    Dactylis   glomerata.     In- 
florescence, X  Vs,  spikelet,  X7. 


228  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

most  important  genera  of  forage  grasses.  The  species  are 
abundant  in  the  grazing  areas  of  our  western  mountains 
and  several  species  are  cultivated. 

252.  Kentucky  blue-grass. — Culms  from  a  few  inches 
to  2  feet  or  more  in  height  from  slender  creeping  rhizomes; 
sheaths  smooth;  ligule  short;  blades  fiat  or  somewhat 
folded,  ending  like  most  species  of  the  genus,  in  a  boat- 
shaped  blunt  point,  panicle  2  to  4  inches  long  or  sometimes 
larger,  pyramidal,  open,  the  lower  branches  in  groups  of 
about  5;  spikelets  3-  to  5-flowered,  4  to  5  mm.  long;  lemmas 
pubescent  on  the  keel  and  marginal  nerves,  bearing  a 
tuft  of  cobwebby  hairs  at  base.  Commonly  cultivated  as 
a  lawn-  and  pasture-grass. 

Poa  pratensis  L.  (Fig.  54.)  Kentucky  blue-grass.  Perennial,  in 
tufts  but  producing  slender  creeping  rootstocks;  culms  slender, 
erect,  smooth,  terete  or  slightly  flattened,  1  to  3  feet  high;  sheaths 
smooth,  sometimes  slightly  keeled;  ligule  membranaceous,  short, 
truncate,  about  1  mm.  long;  blades,  especially  the  basal,  long  and 
narrow,  flat  or  usually  partly  folded  or  conduphcate,  usually  not 
over  4  mm.  wide,  the  uppermost  1  to  3  inches  long,  appressed, 
slightly  roughened  on  the  margins  and  keel,  especially  toward  the 
boat-shaped  tip;  panicle  open,  pyramidal  or  oblong,  3  to  6  inches 
long,  the  scabrous  branches  naked  below,  the  lower  in  whorls  of 
usually  5,  one  being  stronger;  spikelets  ovate  or  lanceolate,  flat- 
tened, 4  to  6  mm.  long,  usually  3-  to  5-flowered,  the  ultimate  pedi- 
cels about  1  mm.  long;  glumes  narrow,  acute,  the  first  1-nerved, 
the  second  3-nerved;  lemma  5-nerved,  acute,  hyahne  or  papery  and 
often  purple-tinged  at  apex,  about  4  mm.  long,  the  keel  and  margi- 
nal nerves  pubescent,  the  base  bearing  a  tuft  of  cobwebby  hairs. 
The  boat-shaped  apex  of  the  blades  is  characteristic  of  the  genus. 
Blue-grass  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  may  also  be  native  in  the 
northern  parts  of  North  America.  In  open  dry  or  sterile  soil  the 
flowering  culm  may  be  only  a  few  inches  in  height.  In  color  the 
foliage  is  a  dark  green  and  does  not  have  a  blue  color  as  the  name 
would  indicate.  As  it  flowers  in  June,  the  name  June-grass  is 
applied  to  this  species  in  parts  of  the  northern  United  States. 


FESTUCEM 


229 


253.  Other  economic  species  of  Poa. — Compared 
with  Kentucky  blue-grass,  the  other  species  of  Poa  are  of 
slight  importance,  although  Can- 
ada blue-grass  attains  some  im- 
portance locally  (Par.  35).  Of  the 
other  species  2  are  advertised  by 
seedsmen  and  are  occasionally  used 
in  mixtures. 

Canada  hlue-grass  (Poa  corn- 
pressa  L.). — Culms  wiry,  flattened, 
with  numerous  creeping  rhizomes, 
not  tufted;  panicles  narrow,  the 
branches  in  pairs.  This  resembles 
P.  pratensis  but  is  bluish  green 
rather  than  dark  green.  Cultivated 
as  a  pasture-grass.  Called  also 
wire-grass  and  flat-stem. 

Rough  -  stalked  meadow  -  grass 
(Poa  trivialis  L.). — This  resembles 
P.  pratensis  but  differs  in  the 
absence  of  rhizomes  and  in  having 
scabrous  sheaths  and  a  long  ligule. 
Sometimes  cultivated  as  a  meadow- 
grass. 

Fowl  meadow-grass  (Poa  triflora 
Gilib.;  P.  serotina  Ehrh.). — Culms 
1  to  4  feet  high,  tufted  but  with- 
out   rhizomes;    sheaths    smooth; 

Fia.  54.    Poa  pratensis.    Plant,  X3^;  spikelet 
and  floret,    X5. 


230  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

panicles  large  and  open,  4  to  12  inches  long.  Sometimes 
cultivated  as  a  meadow-grass. 

Annual  blue-grass  {Poa  annua  L.). — A  low-spreading 
tufted  annual  with  soft  light  green  foliage  and  small 
panicles  resembling  those  of  P.  pratensis.  A  native  of 
Europe,  now  a  common  weed  throughout  the  warmer  por- 
tions of  the  United  States.  In  the  eastern  states,  it  is  a 
troublesome  weed  in  lawns,  because,  though  it  makes  a 
good  showing  in  the  spring,  it  dies  out  later,  leaving  bare 
spots. 

Poa  arachnifera  Torr.  Texas  blue-grass.  A  smooth  rhizome- 
bearing,  dioecious  perennial  1  to  2  feet  high,  with  contracted  pani- 
cles 2  to  4  inches  long;  the  staminate  spikelets  glabrous,  the  lemmas 
of  the  pistillate  spikelets  villous  on  the  keel  and  marginal  nerves, 
provided  at  base  wath  a  copious  tuft  of  woolly  hairs.  A  native  of 
Texas,  where  it  is  a  good  but  rather  local  range-grass.  This  species 
has  been  recommended  as  a  winter  pasture-grass  for  the  South. 

Many  native  species  of  Poa  are  important  constituents  of  moun- 
tain ranges. 

254.  Festuca  L. — Fescue-grass.  A  large  genus  found 
in  all  the  cooler  and  arctic  regions  of  the  world.  Annuals 
or  perennials  with  narrow  or  open  panicles  of  several- 
flowered  spikelets;  lemmas  rounded  on  back,  rather  firm 
in  texture,  5-nerved,  acute  or  tapering  into  an  awn.  The 
annual  species  are  weedy  but  the  perennial  species  are 
excellent  forage  grasses,  several  species  being  cultivated 
as  pasture-grasses. 

255.  Meadow  fescue. — A  tufted  smooth  perennial 
1  to  4  feet  high,  with  narrow  panicle,  4  to  8  inches  long, 
the  branches  spreading  while  in  flower  but  contracting 
later.  Commonly  cultivated  as  a  meadow-  and  pasture- 
grass.  A  form  with  lower  culms  and  more  simple  panicle 
has  been  called  F.  pratensis  Huds.  In  some  localities 
meadow  fescue  is  called  English  blue-grass. 


FESTUCEM 


231 


Festuca  elatior  L.  (Fig.  55).  Meadow  fescue. 
Perennial,  sometimes  with  short  rootstocks; 
cuhns  erect,  smooth,  1  to  4  feet  high;  sheaths 
smooth,  or  sHghtly  scabrous  toward  the  apex; 
ligule  a  membrane  3^  mm.  or  less  long;  blades 
elongated,  2  to  5  mm.  wide,  scabrous  on  the 
upper  surface,  the  base  bearing  on  each  side  a 
more  or  less  well-developed  am'icle;  panicle  erect 
or  nodding  at  the  apex,  4  to  8  inches  long,  rather 
loose,  contracted,  but  spreading  in  flower,  the 
branches  mostly  singly  disposed,  bearing  few 
spikelets;  spikelets  oblong  or  lanceolate,  about 
3^  inch  long,  smooth,  green,  usually  7-  or  8-flow- 
ered;  glumes  lanceolate,  about  half  as  long  as 
the  first  floret;  lemma  rounded  on  the  back, 
faintly  nerved,  the  scarious  apex  acute. 

256.  Sheep's  fescue  {F.  ovina  L.). — 
A  densely  tufted  erect  perennial  6  inches 
to  2  feet  high  with  numerous  slender 
firm  involute  basal  leaves  and  narrow 
panicles  2  to  4  inches  long,  spreading  in 
flower;  spikelets  short-awned.  Common 
in  Europe  in  many  forms  or  closely  allied 
species.  Used  in  this  country  in  pasture 
mixtures  for  sterile  soil.  Var.  capillata 
(Lam.)  Hack,  has  long  slender  rather 
soft  blades.  Var.  duriuscula  (L.)  Koch, 
hard  fescue,  has  harsh  blades  about  1 
mm.  thick. 

257.  Red  fescue  {F.  rubra  L.). — This 
differs  from  F.  ovina  in  having  less  closely 
tufted  culms,  the  bases  somewhat  de- 
cumbent or  creeping.  This  species  is  also 
cultivated  in  meadows.  Var.  heterophylla 
(Lam.)  Hack.,  various-leaved  fescue,  has 


Fig.  55.  Festuca 
elatior.  Inflorescence, 
XH;  spikelet,  X4. 


232  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

slender  soft  leaves  and  is  more  densely  tufted  than  red 
fescue.  It  is  used  for  shaded  places  in  la^^^ls  where  other 
grasses  will  not  thrive. 

Several  native  species  of  Festuca  are  important  range  grasses. 
Fesiuca  idahoensis  Elmer  {F.  ingrata  (Hack.)  Rydb.)  is  common  in 
Oregon,  Washington  and  Idaho.  It  is  related  to  F.  ovina  and  has 
numerous  involute,  stiff,  scabrous  blades  and  a  rather  large,  spreading 
panicle,  the  lemmas  awned.  F.  viridula  Vasey  is  a  green  erect 
species  with  creeping  rootstocks  and  awnless  lemmas.  It  is  a 
valuable  range  grass  of  the  mountain  meadows. 

One  section  of  the  genus  includes  several  species  of  small 
annuals.  One  species,  F.  octoflora  Walt.,  is  common  in  dry  open 
ground  throughout  the  United  States.  In  the  western  states  there 
are  several  other  species,  some  of  which  are  sufficiently  abundant 
in  the  desert  regions  to  produce  forage  after  the  rainy  season. 

258.  Bromus  L. — Brome-grass.  A  large  genus,  found 
mostly  in  the  north  temperate  zone.  Annuals  or  per- 
ennials with  closed  sheaths,  and  open  or  contracted 
panicles  of  comparatively  large  spikelets;  lemmas  keeled 
or  rounded  on  the  back,  bifid  at  apex,  usually  awned 
from  between  the  teeth.  Several  annual  species  have  been 
introduced  from  Europe  and  have  become  troublesome 
weeds,  especially  on  the  Pacific  coast.  One  species  is 
called  cheat  or  chess  (B.  secalinus)  and  is  a  weed  in  grain- 
fields  in  the  eastern  states.  This  species  is  cultivated  for 
hay  in  Oregon  and  Washington.  This  has  an  open  panicle 
of  plump  short-awned  spikelets.  The  species  of  Bromus, 
even  the  annuals,  are  good  forage  grasses,  at  least  when 
young. 

259.  Awnless  brome-grass. — An  erect  perennial  with 
creeping  rhizomes,  flat  blades  and  open  panicles  of  slightly 
flattened  spikelets,  the  lemmas  awnless  or  nearly  so.  A 
native  of  Europe  and  cultivated  in  the  northwestern 
states  as  a  forage  grass. 


FESTUCEJE 


233 


Bromus  inermis  Leyss.  (Fig.  56). 
Awnless  brome-grass.  Perennial  with 
numerous    creeping   rootstocks;  culms 

1  to  3  feet  high,  smooth,  leafy;  sheaths 
smooth,  closed  nearly  to  the  summit, 
bearing  on  each  side  at  apex  a  point 
or  auricle;  hgule  membranaceous,  1  to 

2  mm.  long,  ciUate  and  more  or  less 
toothed;  blades  flat,  5  to  8  mm.  wide, 
somewhat  scabrous;  panicle  4  to  6 
inches  long,  somewhat  open  and  spread- 
ing, the  branches  naked  below,  the 
lower  in  fascicles;  spikelets  about  an 
inch  long,  brown  or  purphsh,  8-  to  10- 
flowered,  shghtly  flattened;  first  glume 
narrow,  acute,  1-nerved,  5  mm.  long, 
the  second  broader  and  longer,  obtuse, 
3-nerved;  lemma  5-  to  7-nerved,  the 
nerves  scabrous,  the  apex  awnless  or 
short-awned. 

260.  Rescue -grass  {B.  uni- 
oloides  Kunth) .  —  Schrader's 
brome-grass.  An  erect  annual  or 
biennial,  with  pubescent  sheaths 
and  a  narrow  panicle  of  com- 
pressed spikelets,  the  lemmas 
keeled,  acuminate,  awnless.  A 
native  of  South  America,  culti- 
vated in  our  southern  states  for 
winter  forage. 

The  annual  weedy  species 
Bromus  are  numerous  and  conspicuou.s 
on  the  Pacific  slope.  The  seeds  germi- 
nate in  the  spring  and  the  young  plants 
cover  the  plains  and  foothills  with 
green.  By  midsummer  the  plants  have  matured  and  the  green 
mantle  has  turned  to  brown.    The  fruiting  florets  of  some  species 


Fig.  56.     Bromus  inermis.     In- 
florescence,   X>'2;  spikelet,  X3. 


234  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

with  their  antrorsely  scabrous  awns  are  sharp-pointed  so  they 
readily  penetrate  clothing  and  the  wool  of  sheep,  because  of  which 
these  species  are  considered  a  great  pest.  The  following  key  wiU 
distinguish  the  common  species: 

A.  Panicle  contracted,  dense. 
B.  Awn  %  inch  long. 

c.  Culm  pubescent  below  panicle B.  rubens  L. 

cc.  Culm  glabrous  below  panicle B.madntensis'L. 

BB.  Awn  about  3^  inch  long B.  hordeaceus  L. 

AA.  Panicle  open,  the  branches  spreading. 

B.  Awn  twisted  and  bent B.  trinii  Desv. 

BB.  Awn  not  twisted  and  bent. 

c.  Sheaths  smooth B.  secalmus  L. 

cc.  Sheaths  pubescent. 

D.  Awn  13^  to  2  inches  long B.  villosus 

DD.  Awn  not  over  %  inch  long.  [Forsk. 

E.  First  glume  1-nerved B.  tcdorum  L. 

EE.  First  glume  3-nerved. 

F.  Lemmas  pubescent B.  arenarius 

[Labill. 

FF.  Lemmas  glabrous. B.  pratensis 

[Ehrh. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
Tribe  XII.    HORDE.E 

A  SMALL  tribe  of  about  25  genera  in  the  temperate 
regions  of  both  hemispheres.  Spikelets  1-  to  several- 
flowered,  sessile  in  spikes.  The  rachis  is  flattened  or 
concave  next  to  the  spikelets,  or  in  some  genera  it  is 
hollowed  out  so  that  the  spikelets  are  embedded  or  in- 
closed. The  spike  is  1-sided  in  Nardus  (of  Eurasia),  but 
symmetrical  in  all  other  genera.  In  Triticum  and  its 
allies  there  is  1  spikelet  at  each  node  of  the  rachis,  and  in 
Hordeum  and  its  allies  there  are  2  or  more.  The  spikelets 
are  usually  placed  sidewise  to  the  rachis  but  in  Lolium 
and  its  allies  they  are  placed  edgewise.  In  these  genera  the 
outer  glume  is  fully  developed,  but  the  inner  (second) 
glume  is  reduced  or  wanting  except  in  the  terminal  spikelet, 
where  the  glumes  are  equal.  The  rachis  of  the  spike  dis- 
articulates in  Sitanion,  Scribneria,  Lepturus  and  a  few 
species  of  Elymus  and  Agropyron.  In  some  species  of 
Elymus  the  glumes,  except  in  the  terminal  spikelet,  stand 
in  front  of  the  spikelet  instead  of  at  the  2  sides.  According 
to  some  these  2  organs  are  the  2  portions  of  a  single  deeply 
cleft  glume  (Par.  153)  or  represent  branchlets.  In  some 
species  of  Elymus  and  especially  in  Sitanion  the  glumes 
are  very  slender,  extending  into  long  awns.  In  Sitanion 
the  glumes  are  commonly  split  into  2-several  slender  awns. 
The  blades  of  this  tribe  usually  bear  on  each  side  at  the 
base  an  appendage  or  auricle.  To  this  tribe  belong  our 
most  important  cereals. 

(235) 


236  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Key  to  the  Genera  of  Hordeje 

A.  Spikelets  more  than  1  at  each  node  of  the  rachis. 

B.  Spikelets  3  at  each  node  of  the  rachis,   1- 

fiowered,  the  lateral  pair  pedicelled,  usually 

reduced Hordeum 

BB.  Spikelets  2  at  each  node  of  the  rachis,  2-  to  6-  (Par.  268). 

flowered,  all  alike. 
c.  Glumes  none  or  reduced  to  short  bristles; 

spikes  very  loose Hystrix. 

cc.  Glumes  usually  equaUng  the  florets;  spikes 
dense. 
D.  Rachis    continuous;    glumes    broad    or 

narrow,  entire Elymus 

DD.  Rachis     disarticulating     at     maturity,  (Par.  269). 

glumes    slender,    extended    into    long 
awns,    these    and    the    awns    of    the 
lemmas  making  the  spike  very  bristly. Sitanion. 
AA.  Spikelets  solitary  at  each  node  of  the  rachis. 
B.  Spikelets    placed    edgewise    to    the    rachis; 
glume  1  except  in  the  terminal  spikelet. 

c.  Spikelets  several-flowered Lolium 

cc.  Spikelets    1-flowered.    Introduced    on    the         (Par.  261). 

Pacific  coast Monerma. 

BB.  Spikelets    placed    flatwise    to    the    rachis; 
glumes  in  pairs, 
c.  Spikelets  1-flowered;  spikes  slender,  terete. 

D.  Lemmas  awnless Lepturus. 

DD.  Lemmas  awned.    Pacific  coast Scribneria. 

cc.  Spikelets  2-  to  several-flowered. 

D.  Plants  perennial   (as  to  species  of  the 

United  States) Agropyron 

DD.  Plants  annual.  (Par.  262). 

E.  Glumes  ovate,  3-nerved Triticum 

(Par.  263). 

EE.  Glumes  subulate,  1-nerved Secale 

(Par.  267). 

261.  Lolium  L, — Rye-grass.  A  small  genus  of  temper- 
ate Eurasia.  Spikelets  several-flowered,  somewhat  resem- 
bling those  of  Festuca,  the  lemma  often  awned.  The 
genus  can  be  easily  distinguished  by  the  position  of  the 
spikelets,  edgewise  to  the  rachis.  The  second  glume  being 
next  the  rachis  is  usually  suppressed  but  is  present  and 
equal  to  the  first  in  the  terminal  spikelet.  Two  closely 
related  species  are  used  for  lawns,  meadows  and  pastures. 


BORDEM 


n\ 


These  are  perennial  rye-grass,   L.  perenne,   and 
Italian  rye-grass,  L.  multiflorum  (L.  italicum). 

Lolium  perennc  L.  Perennial  rye-grass.  Perennial; 
culms  tufted,  erect,  smooth,  1  to  2  feet  high;  sheaths 
smooth;  ligule  a  short  membrane,  less  than  1  mm.  long; 
blades  flat,  narrow,  mostly  less  than  4  mm.  wide,  smooth, 
or  scabrous  above,  the  base  extended  on  each  side  into  an 
auricle;  spike  slender,  as  much  as  a  foot  long;  spikelets 
usually  8-  to  10-flowered  somewhat  longer  than  the  5  to 
8  mm.  long  glume,  the  lemmas  awnless. 

Lolium  multiflorum  Lam.  (L.  italicum  A.  Br.).  (Fig. 

57.)    Differs  from  the  preceding  in  having  awned  lemmas 

and  usually  a  greater  number  of  florets  to  the  spikelet. 

This  species  is  now   common   in  grass  land   and   waste 

places  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  it  is  sometimes  called 

Australian    rye-grass.    These     species 

are  both  used  in  lawn  mixtures  in  the 

East.      The    young    plants    resemble 

blue-grass  but  may  be  distinguished 

W  J  /  /   t»y  *h®  darker  green  color,  the  usually 

larger  size  and  especially  by  the  glossy 

surface    of    the    blades,    and    by   the 

absence  of  the  boat-shaped  tip.    The 

auricles   are    characteristic    when    the 

shoots  are  sufficiently  developed. 

Lolium  temulentum  L.  Darnel. 
An  annual  with  glumes  as  much  as 
an  inch  long,  longer  than  the  5-  to 
7-flowered  spikelets.  Introduced  from 
Europe.  Not  common,  but  of  interest 
because  of  the  presence  in  the  fruit  of 
a  narcotic  poison  said  to  be  due  to  a 
fungus.  This  plant  is  said  to  be  the 
one  referred  to  in  scripture  in  the 
parable  of  the  tares  (Henslow,  "Plants  of  the  Bible,"  p.  119). 

262.  Agropyron  Gcertn. — Wheat-grass.  A  genus  of 
about  50  species  of  the  temperate  regions.  Spikelets 
several-flowered,  1  at  each  node  of  the  rachis.    Distin- 


FiG.  57.  Lolium  multiflorum. 
Inflorescence,  X  H;  spikelet  with 
portion  of  rachis,  X3. 


238 


A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


guished  from  Triticum  by  the  narrow  pointed  or  awned 
glumes.  The  American  species  are  perennials.  Couch- 
grass,  A.  repens  (L.)  Beauv.  (Fig.  58),  is  a  troublesome 
weed  introduced  from  Europe.  It  prop- 
agates by  creeping  rhizomes.  A  similar 
native  species,  A.  Smithii  Rydb.,  is  found 
in  alkali  soil  in  the  western  states  and 
furnishes  a  fair  quality  of  hay.  Another 
species,  A.  tenereum  Vasey,  is  a  bunch-grass 
of  the  same  region.  This  species  has  been 
introduced  into  cultivation  and  is  sold  by 
seedsmen  under  the  name  of  slender  wheat- 
grass.  This  has  erect  stems  2  to  4  feet 
high,  with  slender  spikes  2  to  6  inches 
long,  or  even  longer,  broad-nerved  awn- 
pointed  glumes  nearly  as  long  as  the  spike- 
let,  and  short-awned  or  awnless  lemmas. 

263.  Triticum  L.— Wheat.  A  small 
genus  of  annuals  distinguished  from  Agro- 
pyron  by  the  broad  several-toothed  or 
awned  glumes.  The  best  known  species  is 
the  common  wheat  (7".  vulgaris;  T.  sativum) 
of  which  there  are  numerous  varieties. 
'Those  varieties  bearing  long  awns  are 
called  bearded  wheats;  those  in  which  the 
awn  is  short  or  none  are  called  beardless 


Fig.  58.   Agropyron  repens.    Inflorescence  and 
rhizomes,  X3^;  spikelet,  X-i. 


HORDED 


239 


or  smooth  wheats.  In  all  the 
true  wheats,  the  gram  is  free 
from  the  lemma  and  palea 
(the  chaff). 

264.  Spelt  and  emmer  are 
considered  by  some  as  varie- 
ties of  wheat,  by  others  as 
distinct  species,  the  first  being 
T.  spelta,  the  second  T.  dicoc- 
cum  (Fig.  59).  They  differ 
from  wheat  in  having  an  artic- 
ulated rachis,  and  grains  pr^r- 
manently  inclosed  in  the 
glumes  and  lemmas.  When 
threshed,  the  spike  breaks  up 
into  the  intemodes  of  the 
rachis,  each  with  a  spikelet 
attached.  In  wheat,  the 
threshing  process  removes  the 
grains  from  the  spikelets  and 
leaves  the  rachis  entire.  The 
head  or  spike  of  emmer  is 
compact,  resembling  that  of 
bearded  wheat.  The  spike  of 
spelt  is  more  slender  and  loose. 

Emmer  has  been  intro- 
duced into  cultivation  in  recent  years  as  a  dry-land  pro- 
duct in  the  Great  Plains  region,  the  grain  being  used  in 
the  same  manner  as  barley  for  feeding  stock.  The  statistics 
for  this  crop  are  given  in  the  census  report  under  "emmer 
and  spelt."  Since  the  amount  of  spelt  cultivated  is 
insignificant,  the  figures  apply  mostly  to  emmer.  The 
production  of  this  crop  is  given  in  Table  XI  (Par.  9). 


Fig.  59.  Triticum  dicoccum.  In- 
florescence (head),  X  3^2.  spikelet 
with  a  disarticulated  joint  of  the 
rachis,  X2. 


240  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

265.  Origin  of  wheat. — None  of  the  cultivated  wheats 
is  now  found  growing  spontaneously,  that  is,  as  a  native 
plant.  Various  theories  have  been  advanced  as  to  their 
origin.  Some  botanists  have  supposed  them  to  be  derived 
from  wild  species  now  extinct  or  possibly  existing  in  unex- 
plored regions.  Others  have  thought  them  to  be  the 
greatly  changed  descendants  from  common  wild  species 
such  as  Triticum  ovatum  Rasp.  {lEgilops  ovata  L.).  (See 
Fabre,  Journ.  Roy.  Agr.  Soc.  15:  167.  1854.)  Schulz  has 
recently  suggested  the  probable  origin  of  the  cultivated 
forms.  He  considers  the  cultivated  wheats  to  be  culture- 
form  groups  rather  than  species,  subspecies  or  races. 
Nomenclatorially  he  recognizCvS  the  following:  T.  mono- 
coccum,  T.  spelta,  T.  dicoccum,  T.  vulgare,  T.  compactum, 
T.  turgidum,  T.  durum,  T.  polonicuni.  The  first-mentioned, 
T.  monococcum,  he  believes  is  derived  from  the  wild  T. 
cegilopoides  Bal.,  and  the  third,  T.  dicoccum,  from  the  wild 
T.  dicoccoides  Korn.,  recently  discovered  by  Aaronsohn 
in  the  region  of  Mount  Hermon,  Palestine.  (See  Cook, 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  PI.  Ind.  Bull.  274.  1913.  Aaronsohn, 
Op.  cit.  180:  38.  1910.  Verh.  Zool.-bot.  Ges.  Wien.  59: 485. 
1909.  Altneuland  Monatschr.  Wirtsch.  Erschl.  Palas- 
tinas  213.  1906.  Bull.  Soc.  Bot.  France  56:  237.  1909. 
Schweinfurth,  Ber.  Deutsch.  Bot.  Ges.  26a:  309.  1908.) 
The  second,  T.  spelta,  he  considers  to  have  been  derived 
from  an  as  yet  undiscovered  wild  species.  Furthermore  he 
thinks  that  T.  vulgare  and  T.  compactum  were  derived  from 
T.  spelta,  and  that  T.  turgidum,  T.  durum,  and  T.  poloni- 
cum  were  derived  from  T.  dicoccum.  (Schulz,  Mitt.  Natf. 
Ges.  Halle  1: 14.  1911.)  Aaronsohn  considers  T.  dicoccum 
to  be  the  prototype  of  true  wheat  and  the  former  to  be 
derived  from  T.  dicoccoides  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur.  PI. 
Ind.  Bull.  180  :  41.  1910). 


HORDED 


241 


Triticum  asstivutn  L.  {T.vulgare\ ill.;  T.  sativum  Lam.).  (Fig. 
60).  Wheat.  Annual;  culms  tufted,  erect,  smooth  or  pubescent  at 
the  nodes,  2  to  3  feet  high;  sheaths  smooth  or  slightly  scabrous,  or 
the  lowermost  pubescent;  ligule  membranaceous,  about  1  mm, 
long;  blades  flat,  about  3-^  inch  wide,  more  or  less  scabrous  on  the 
upper  surface,  the  base  extended  on  either  side  into  points  or  auri- 
cles, these,  at  least  in  the  young  leaves, 
ciliate;  spike  dense,  more  or  less  4-sided, 
1  to  4  inches  long;  spikelets  overlap- 
ping, single  at  the  nodes,  in  2  rows 
alternating  on  the  zigzag  continuous 
rachis,  usually  3-  to  5-flowered,  ovate, 
somewhat  compressed;  glumes  coria- 
ceous, shorter  than  the  spikelets,  un- 
symraetrical  or  1-sided,  the  outer  side 
being  broader,  and  bearing  an  obtuse 
or  rounded  shoulder  or  tooth,  the  sharp 
keel  ending  in  a  point  or  awn;  lemmas 
similar  to  the  glumes  but  nearly  sym- 
metrical, more  or  less  3-toothed,  the 
central  tooth  sometimes  extending  into 
a  long  awn  or  beard.  This  includes  all 
the  forms  that  are  grown  in  America 
under  the  name  of  wheat.  There  are 
numerous  varieties  differing  in  length 
of  awn,  color  of  the  head  and  of  the 
grain,  in  pubescence  of  the  spikelets, 
in  the  shape  of  the  head,  and  many 
other  characters.  The  only  other  species 
of  the  genus  grown  commercially  in 
America  is  emmer  {T .  dicoccum 
Schrank).  Durum  wheat  is  considered 
to  be  a  variety  of  T.  seslivum.  .  Fi°-  60.  Triticum jestivum.  In- 

•'  florescence  (head),  X  3^21  spikelet 

Two  other  species  are   grown  to   a     "^vith  portion  of  attached  rachis, 

limited  extent  in  southeastern  Europe. 

These  are  Polish  wheat  {T.  polonicum  L.)  in  which  the  glumes  are 
papery  in  texture  and  longer  than  the  spikelet;  and  einkorn  {T. 
monococcum  L.)  with  disarticulating  rachis  and  slender  long-awned 
heads,   the  lateral  tooth  of  the  glumes  pointed,   the  palea  spUt- 


242  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

ting  into  2  parts,  the  spikelets  much  compressed,  2-flowered  but 
usually  1-seeded. 

266.  Classification  of  the  wheats. — The  cultivated 
forms  of  the  genus  Triticum  may  be  divided  into  2  series: 
(1)  The  spelt  wheats,  in  which  the  axis  disarticulates  and 
the  grains  are  permanently  inclosed  in  the  spikelets.  This 
group  includes  spelt  (7".  spelta  L.),  emmer  (T.  dicoccum 
Schrank)  and  einkom  (T.  monococcum  L.),  the  latter, 
grown  to  a  limited  extent  in  certain  parts  of  Europe,  being 
distinguished  by  the  1-a^vned  spikelets  with  usually  only 
1  grain.  (2)  The  naked  wheats,  in  which  the  axis  is 
entire  and  the  grains  not  permanently  inclosed  by  the 
spikelets.  In  these  the  grain  can  be  separated  from  the 
chaff  by  threshing.  The  group  includes  Polish  wheat 
(T.  polonicum  L. ),  durum  wheat  (7".  durum  Desf.),  Eng- 
lish wheat  (T.  turgidum  L.)  and  the  numerous  varieties  of 
wheat  grown  in  America,  T.  oestivum  L.,  T.  vulgare  Vill., 
and  T.  sativum  Lam.  (See  Jessen,  Deutschlands  Graser 
191.    1863.) 

Hackel's  classification. — Hackel  divides  the  cultivated 
wheats  into  3  species  on  more  technical  botanical  char- 
acters: 

A.  Terminal    spikelet     aborted,     often     scarcely 
visible.  Palea  faUing  into  2  parts  at  maturity. 

Lateral  teeth  of  glumes  acute 1.  T.  monococ- 

AA.  Terminal  spikelets  developed;  palea  remaining  [cum. 

entire;  lateral  teeth  of  the  glumes  obtuse. 
B.  Glumes  shorter  than  any  of  the  lemmas, 

chartaceous;  palea  as  long  as  lemmas 2.  T.  sativum. 

BB.  Glumes  as  long  as  or  longer  than  any  of  the 
lemmas,  papery,  lanceolate;  palea  of  the 
lowest  flower  half  as  long  as  its  lemma 3.  T.  polonicum. 

Triticum  sativum,  (the  equivalent  of  T.  oestivum)  he 
divides  as  follows  into  3  groups  which  he  calls  races: 


HORDEJE  243 

A.  Rachis  articulate  at  maturity;  grain  entirely 

inclosed  by  the  glumes,  not  falling  out  when 

threshed  (however  it  is  not  grown   to   the 

glumes) . 

B.  Spikes  loose,  almost  4-sided  when  seen  from 

above;  glumes  broadly  truncate  in  front, 

with  a  very  short,   obtuse  middle  tooth, 

obtusely  keeled 1 .  T.  sativum 

BB.  Spikes    very    dense,    laterally    compressed ;      [spelta  Hack, 
glumes    tapering,    with    an    acute   middle 

tooth;  sharply  keeled 2.  T.  sativum,  di- 

AA.  Rachis    not    articulated    at    maturity;    gi'ain    [coccttm  Hack, 
visible  between  the  somewhat  open  fruiting 

lemma  and  palea,  easily  falling  out 3.  T.  sativum 

[tenax  Hack. 
The  third  race,  which  includes  the  common  wheats,  he 
divides  in  fom'  subraces: 

A.  Glumes  distinctly  keeled  only  in  the  upper 
half,  rounded  or  only  slightly  keeled  in  the 
lower  half. 
B.  Spikes  long,  more  or  less  loose,  somewhat 

dorsally  compressed 1.  T.  sativum 

[vulgare  Hack. 

BB.  Spikes  short,  dense,  distinctly  4-sided 2.  T.  sativum 

AA.  Glumes  sharply  keeled  at  the  base.  [compac^wm  Hack. 

B.  Grain  short,  thick,  not  compressed,  broadly 

truncate  above 3.  T.  sativum  tur- 

BB.  Grain  oblong,  narrower,  somewhat  laterally      [gidum  Hack. 

compressed,  and  somewhat  acuminate 4.  T.  sativum 

[durum  Hack. 

The  first  includes  most  of  the  common  wheats,  of 
which  there  are  numerous  varieties.  The  second  includes 
the  club  wheats  grown  in  the  Palouse  country  of  Wash- 
ington and  the  adjacent  regions.  The  third  includes 
English  wheat,  especially  grown  in  Mediterranean  coun- 
tries. The  fourth  includes  the  durum  wheat,  recently 
introduced  and  now  successfully  grown  in  the  Great 
Plains  region.  (See  Hackel  in  Engl.  &  Prantl,  Pflanzen- 
fam.  II.  2:80.    1887.   True  Grasses,  180.    1890.) 

Komicke's  classification  is  similar  to  that  of  Hackel, 
but  he  recognizes  the  races  and  subraces  as  species. 
(Kornicke,  Handb.  Getreidebaues,  1:40.    1885  ) 


244 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


267.  Secale  L. — Rye.  A  small  genus  of  southern 
Europe  and  southwestern  Asia  including  2  wild  species 
and  the  cultivated  rye.  Rachis  continuous  in  the  cul- 
tivated species,  disarticulating  in  the  wild  species;  spikelets 
mostly  2-flowered,  single  at  the  nodes,  awned,  the  glumes 

narrow.  One  wild  species  is  an 
annual,  the  other,  S.  montanum  Guss., 
is  a  perennial.  From  the  latter  has 
been  developed,  according  to  some 
botanists,  the  cultivated  rye. 

Secale  cereaWL.  Rye.  (Fig.  61).  Annual; 
culms  usually  pubescent  below  the  spike, 
otherwise  smooth,  usually  glaucous,  erect, 
tufted,  3  to  5  feet  high;  sheaths  smooth; 
ligule  membranaceous,  short,  about  1  mm. 
long,  toothed,  often  lacerate;  blades  flat, 
3^  to  3^2  inch  wide,  scabrous,  bearing  on 
each  side  at  base  a  small  point  or  auricle; 
spike  3  to  5  inches  long,  somewhat  nodding; 
the  rachis-joints  pubescent  on  the  edges; 
spikelets  2-flowered,  or  with  a  third  rudi- 
mentary floret;  glumes  narrow,  l-nerved, 
almost  subulate,  scabrous  on  the  keel; 
lemma  lanceolate,  much-compressed,  5- 
nerved,  ciliate  with  stiff  hairs  on  the  keel 
and  exposed  margin,  unsymmetrical,  the 
outer  half  broader  and  more  distinctly 
nerved,  the  apex  tapering  into  a  straight 
awn  about  an  inch  long. 

268.  Hordeum  L. — Barley.  A  small  genus  of  temper- 
ate regions.  Glumes  narrow  or  subulate,  standing  in  front 
of  the  spikelet,  the  3  pairs  forming  a  sort  of  involucre  at 
each  node  of  the  rachis;  lemmas  awned.  The  most  impor- 
tant species  is  the  cultivated  barley  {H.  vulgare),  an 
annual  with  close  spikes  like  those  of  wheat,  the  spikelets 


Fig.  61.  Secale  cereale. 
Inflorescence  (head),X}'^; 
spikelet,  X2. 


HORDED 


245 


long-awned.  When  all  3  spikelets  of  each  group  arc  fertile 
the  barley  is  6-rowed ;  when 
only  the  central  spikelet  is 
fertile  the  barley  is  2-rowed. 
In  4-rowed,  or  common 
barley,  all  the  spikelets  are 
fertile  but  the  lateral  rows 
of  the  opposite  sides  of  the 
head  overlap  or  intermingle 
to  form  a  single  row.  Sev- 
eral species  of  Hordeum 
are  troublesome  weeds.  Of 
these  may  be  mentioned  H. 
pusillum  Nutt.,  an  annual, 
and  H.  nodosum  L.,  a  per- 
ennial, low  short -awned 
species  found  widely  distrib- 
uted in  the  United  States, 
and  H.juhatumlj.  (squirrel- 
tail  grass)  with  long-awned 
soft  spikes,  a  perennial 
found  especially  westward, 
all  3  native  species.  Two 
species  introduced  from 
Europe,  H.  murinum  L.  and 
H.  Gussoneanum  Pari.,  vari- 
ously knoAvn  as  fox-tail  and 
wild  barley,  are  common 
and  troublesome  on  the 
Pacific  coast.  These  are  low 
spreading  annuals,  the  first 

1  •!                    1            Fif^-  *52.    Hordeum  vulgare. 

With     flattened  spikes     and  cence   (head),   X>2;  duster   of 

,.     ,           ,  ,,                         ,  lets,  and  a  single   floret  from 

Clliate     glumes,  the     second  showing  the  stiplform  rachilla, 


Inflores- 
3  spike- 
the  back 
X2. 


246  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

with  cylindrical  spikes  and  several  setaceous  glumes.  All 
the  species  mentioned  except  cultivated  barley  have  an 
articulated  rachis  that  breaks  up  at  maturity. 

Hordeum  vulgare  L.  {H .  sativum  Jessen) .  (Fig.  62.)  Cultivated 
barley.  Annual;  culms  and  leaves  similar  to  those  of  wheat;  auri- 
cles prominent,  as  much  as  5  mm.  long,  glabrous;  spike  densely- 
flowered,  usually  3  to  4  inches  long,  excluding  the  long  awns  or 
beards,  the  rachis  not  disarticulating  at  matm-ity;  spikelets  in  3's 
at  each  joint  of  the  rachis;  glumes  about  H  inch  long,  narrow,  the 
upper  half  narrowed  into  an  awn;  lemma  fusiform,  about  %  inch 
long,  the  upper  portion  narrowed  into  a  very  scabrous  flat  awn  as 
much  as  6  inches  long,  the  rachilla  of  the  spikelet  extended  behind 
the  floret  as  a  short  hairy  or  scabrous  pedicel  lying  in  the  furrow  of 
the  palea.  In  most  of  the  forms  of  barley  the  grain  is  tightly 
inclosed  in  the  lemma  and  palea. 

Beardless  barley  is  a  variety  in  which  the  awois  are  suppressed 
and  converted  into  irregular  short  lobes  or  teeth  {H.  vulgare  tri- 
furcatum  Wenderoth). 

Schulz  divides  the  cultivated  barleys  into  2  groups:  (1) 
Hordeum  distichum,  the  2-rowed  barleys,  which  he  refers 
to  H.  spontaneum  Koch  as  the  wild  prototype.  (2)  H. 
polystichum,  the  many-rowed  barleys,  which  he  refers  to 
H.  ischnatherum  (Coss.)  Schulz,  as  the  wild  prototype. 
(Mitt.  Natf.  Ges.  Halle  1 :  18.    1911.) 

269.  Elymus  L. — Wild  rye.  A  moderate-sized  genus 
of  temperate  regions.  Rachis  continuous;  spikelets  usually 
2  at  each  node;  glumes  in  pairs  in  front  of  the  spikelets 
(the  terminal  spikelet  having  2  opposite  glumes)  usually 
subulate  or  awned. 

The  related  genus  Sitanion  differs  in  having  an  articu- 
lated rachis.  The  glumes  are  usually  subulate  and 
extended  into  long  awns.  Several  species  are  found  in  the 
western  states.  The  mature  joints  of  the  disarticulated 
rachis  with  the  attached  spikelets  are  injurious  to  grazing 
animals,  penetrating  the  ears,  eyes  and  nostrils. 


BAMBUSEM  247 

Tribe  XIII.     BAMBUSE^ 

270.  This  tribe  includes  the  bamboos.  These  are 
nearly  all  perennial,  woody,  often  tree-like  grasses,  mostly 
of  wet  tropical  regions.  The  culms  in  the  larger  species 
are  as  much  as  a  foot  in  diameter  and  over  100  feet  in 
height.  The  common  economic  species  of  the  tropics, 
such  as  Bambos  Bambos  (L.)  Wight  (Bamhusa  vulgaris 
Wendl.),  have  large  hollow  culms,  with  hard  partitions 
at  each  node.  The  wood  is  exceedingly  hard  and  dense. 
The  hollow  joints  are  used  as  utensils  and  the  culms  for  a 
great  variety  of  purposes.  There  are,  especially  in  the 
American  tropics,  several  climbing  species.  The  young 
shoots  of  the  large  erect  species  of  bamboos  are  covered 
with  large  deciduous  scales.  The  shoots  grow  to  a  con- 
siderable height  before  branching  and  producing  the 
ordinary  foliage.  Several  species  of  bamboos  are  cultiva- 
ted in  the  United  States  (Par,  89).  The  commonest  are 
Arundinaria  japonica  Sieb.  &  Zucc,  and  several  species  of 
Phyllostachys.  The  latter  genus  may  be  distinguished  by 
the  internodes,  flattened  on  one  side.  The  species  of 
Phyllostachys  seldom  flower  in  cultivation.  The  spikelets 
of  Arundinaria  japonica  are  large  and  several-flowered. 
The  only  bamboo  native  in  the  United  States  is  the  wild 
cane  {Arundinaria  macrosperma  Michx.)  (Fig.  63),  found 
in  our  southern  states  where  it  often  forms  large  masses 
called  cane-brakes.  A  small  form  of  this  or  possibly  a 
distinct  species,  A.  tecta  Muhl.,  is  called  small  cane  or 
scutch  cane. 

The  floral  characters  of  the  bamboos  are  of  little  importance 
to  students,  as  the  cultivated  forms  do  not  often  flower.  The  critical 
study  of  the  group  is  too  technical  for  any  but  the  expert.  The 
structure  of  the  spikelets  is,  however,  comparatively  simple.    They 


248 


A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 


Fig.  63.  Arundinaria  macrosperma.  Portion  of  culm  with  inflorescence, 
reduced;  floret,  palea  showing  lodiculea,  and  a  caryopsis,  reduced.  (U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.,  Div.  Agrost.,  BuU.  No.  20.) 


BAMBUSEM  249 

are  usually  2-  to  8-flowered,  rarely  1-flowered,  often  in  tufts  at  the 
nodes  of  the  flowering  branchlets.  Glumes  2,  the  lower  lemmas  often 
sterile  and  gradually  passing  into  the  glumes.  Blades  usually  short 
and  rather  broad  and  usually  articulated  with  the  sheath,  and  often 
with  a  short  petiole.  The  stamens  are  3  to  6,  and  the  styles  2  or  3. 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  a  nut  or  even  a  berry. 


CHAPTER  XXV 

NOMENCLATURE 

Attention  has  already  been  called  to  the  classification 
of  plants  into  genera  and  species  and  the  grouping  of  the 
genera  into  larger  divisions,  the  tribes  and  families.  The 
method  of  applying  names  to  these  divisions  will  now  be 
reviewed.  The  language  of  botanical  nomenclature  is 
Latin.  If  names  or  words  are  taken  from  other  languages 
they  are  latinized. 

GENERIC  NAMES 

271.  A  generic  name  is  a  noim  (or  rarely  an  adjective 
used  as  a  noun)  and  is  always  written  with  an  initial 
capital.  The  names  may  be  original  Latin  names  such  as 
Festuca  and  Hordeum,  or  Greek,  such  as  Briza  and 
Bromus.  Or  they  may  be  derived  from  Latin  names,  as 
Digitaria  (from  digitus,  a  finger),  or  compounds  of  Latin 
words  as  Trisetum  (tri,  three,  seta,  a  bristle).  More  often 
the  name  is  compounded  from  two  Greek  words,  as 
Leptochloa  (leptos,  slender,  chloa,  grass)  and  Agropyron 
(agros,  a  field,  puros,  wheat).  The  generic  name  may  be 
a  latinized  fiersonal  name,  as  Muhlenbergia  (for  Dr. 
Henry  Muhlenberg,  an  American  botanist,  1753-1815), 
and  Deschampsia  (for  Loiseleur-Deslongchamps,  a  French 
botanist,  1774-1849).  A  few  names  have  been  taken  from 
other  languages  than  Latin  or  Greek  without  being  latin- 
ized, as  Sabal  (a  kind  of  palm).  Such  aboriginal  names  are 
known  as  barbarous  names.  Some  of  these  have  been 
(250) 


NOMENCLATURE  251 

latinized,  as  Ananas,  Ananassa  (the  pineapple).  Several 
generic  names  of  grasses  with  their  derivations  are  given 
below: 

Erianthus  (Greek,  erion,  wool,  anthos,  flower). 

Manisuris  (Greek,  manos,  slender,  oura,  tail). 

Andropogon  (Greek,  aner,  man,  pogon,  beard). 

Paspalum  (Greek  name  for  millet). 

Panicum  (an  ancient  Latin  name  for  foxtail  millet). 

Echinochloa  (Greek,  echinos,  hedgehog,  chloa,  grass). 

Anthoxanthum  (Greek,  anthos,  flower,  xanthos,  yellow). 

Stipa  (Greek,  stupe,  tow.) 

Aristida  (Latin,  arista,  an  awn). 

Sporobolus  (Greek,  s-pora,  seed,  hollein,  to  cast  forth). 

Agrostis  (Greek,  agros,  a  field,  also  a  kind  of  grass). 

Calamagrostis  (Greek,  kalamos,  a  reed,  agrostis,  a  grass). 

Ammophila  (Greek,  ammos,  sand,  philein,  to  love). 

Avena  (classical  Latin  name). 

Danthonia  (for  Danthoine,  a  French  botanist). 

Spartina  (Greek,  a  cord). 

Chloris  (the  goddess  of  flowers). 

Bouteloua  (for  Boutelou,  a  Spanish  horticulturist). 

Bromus  (Greek,  broma,  food). 


SPECIFIC  NAMES 

272.  The  specific  name  may  be  (1)  an  adjective,  (2) 
a  noun  in  the  genitive  case,  (3)  a  noun  in  apposition.  An 
adjective  name  being  a  modifier  of  the  generic  name,  must 
agree  with  that  in  gender,  and  the  ending  changes  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  the  Latin  grammar  governing  inflection. 
The  specific  adjective  may  be  a  Latin  adjective  or  a 
latinized  Greek  adjective  or  it  may  be  derived  from  a  per- 
son or  a  place. 

A  few  examples  are  appended  to  illustrate  the  adjective 
specific  name : 


252  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Bromus  erectus  Panicum  virgatum. 

Bromus  arvensis.  Panicum  capillare. 

Broinus  purgans.  Panicum  anceps. 

Festuca  rubra.  Panicum  agrostoides. 

Fesluca  occidentalis.  Panicum  prsecocius. 

Festuca  nutans.  Panicum  Wilcoxianum. 

Festuca  elaiior.  Panicum  tennesseense. 

273.  Nouns  in  the  genitive. — Specific  names  in  the 
genitive  are  usually  in  the  singular  and  are  usually  proper 
names.  It  is  common  for  botanists  to  name  a  plant  for 
the  collector,  as  Panicum  Werneri.  Whether  or  not  the 
specific  name  takes  one  or  two  i's  in  the  genitive  is  a  matter 
of  taste  or  euphony.  If  the  name  Smith  is  latinized  to 
Smithus  in  the  nominative  it  becomes  Smithi  in  the 
genitive;  if  it  is  latinized  to  Smithius,  it  becomes  Smithii. 
In  rare  cases  the  genitive  plural  is  used  for  personal 
names,  as  Ldndsaya  Sarasinorum,  for  the  brothers  Sarasin. 
Occasionally  a  common  noun  is  genitive  plural,  as  Bromus 
tectorum.  Further  examples  are  given  below: 

Panicum  Huuchu^se.  Eriogonum  Thompsons, 

Panicum  tsugetorum.  Panicum.  virgultorum, 

Panicum  Leibergii.  Viola  viarum. 

Muhlenbergia  Schreberi.  Uromyces  Trifolii, 
Agropyron  Richardsonis. 

274.  Nouns  in  apposition  are  not  inflected  when  used 
as  specific  names  since  they  are  always  in  the  nominative 
case.  Such  specific  names  are  usually  old  generic  or  other 
proper  names,  as  Arundo  Donax,  Capriola  Dactylon,  Hys- 
trix  Hystrix  and  Achillea  Millefolium.  There  are  a  few 
specific  names  that  consist  of  two  words,  the  first  in  the 
nominative  and  the  second  in  the  genitive,  as  Echinochloa 
Crus-galli,  Apera  spica-venti,  Elymus  caput-medusce.  The 
two  portions  of  the  specific  name  are  usually  joined  by  a 


NOMENCLA  T  URE  253 

hyphen.  Similarly,  the  specific  name  may  be  composed 
of  two  parts  having  other  relations,  as  Opuntia  Ficus- 
indica,  Puccinia  Marice-Wilsoni,  Polypodium  Donnell- 
Smithii.  An  extreme  case  is  Prosaptia  Frederid  et  Pauli. 
Native  names  of  plants  have  been  used  as  specific  names 
without  being  latinized,  giving  rise  to  such  names  as 
Vigna  Catjang  and  Dolichos  Lablab.  Another  category  of 
nominatives  as  specific  names  is  illustrated  by  words  end- 
ing in  cola  (an  inhabitant  of)  such  as  Poa  saxicola, 
Astragalus  monticola,  Panicum  oricola,  P.  sphagnicola. 

275.  Names  of  a  lower  category. — Subdivisions  of  the 
species  are  sometimes  recognized,  these  being,  subspecies, 
variety,  subvariety  and  form.  The  names  used  to  indicate 
these  subdivisions  are  formed  in  the  same  manner  as 
specific  names.  If  the  name  is  an  adjective  it  should  agree 
with  the  genus  in  gender.  The  usual  subdivision  of  the 
species  is  the  variety.  There  are  two  general  methods  of 
writing  the  names  of  the  subdivisions  of  the  species.  Most 
European  and  many  American  botanists  write  the  name, 
for  example,  thus:  Festuca  rubra  var.  multiflora.  The 
other  method,  used  by  many  American  botanists,  is  to 
recognize  but  one  named  category  below  the  species,  to 
call  this  the  subspecies,  and  to  write  the  name  as  a  trino- 
mial, thus:  Festuca  rubra  multiflora. 

276.  Transferring  specific  names. — As  indicated  under 
Classification,  the  botanist's  conception  of  a  species  or  of 
its  relation  to  other  species  may  change  as  his  knowledge 
concerning  these  species  increases,  and  the  opinions  of 
different  botanists  are  not  infrequently  in  disagreement 
concerning  the  same  species.  Consequently  it  may 
become  necessary  to  transfer  a  species  from  one  genus  to 
another,  thus  causing  a  corresponding  change  in  the  name. 
The  specific  name  is  retained  under  the  new  genus  pro- 


254  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

vided  there  is  not  already  in  that  genus  a  species  with  the 
same  name.  If  the  specific  name  is  an  adjective  its  end- 
ing must  be  changed  when  necessary  to  agree  in  gender 
with  the  new  genus.  Thus  Panicum  Jrumentaceum  becomes 
Echinochloa  jrumentacea. 

AUTHORS    OF   NAMES 

277.  The  student  will  observe  after  the  name  of  a 
genus  or  species,  where  these  are  written  formally,  the 
name  of  a  person  either  in  full  or  abbreviated.  This  is 
the  name  of  the  author  of  the  genus  or  species,  that  is, 
the  name  of  the  person  first  describing  the  genus  or  spe- 
cies, or  who  first  applied  to  these  groups  the  name  as  it 
stands.  For  convenience  the  name  of  the  author  is  usually 
abbreviated  unless  it  consists  of  one  syllable,  or  is  not 
often  used,  or  unless  its  abbreviation  would  be  ambiguous. 

A  few  common  abbreviations  are  given  below.  The 
name  is  usually  abbreviated  to  the  vowel  of  the  second 
syllable,  A  few  well-known  names  are  further  abbreviated. 

Beauv. — Beauvois. 
R.  Br. — Robert  Brown. 
DC— De  CandoUe. 
EU.— EUiott. 
.   H.B.K.  or  HBK.— Humboldt,  Bonpland  and  Kunth. 
L.  or  Linn. — Linnajus  or  Linne. 
Michx. — Michaux. 
Muhl. — Muhlenberg. 
Nutt.— Nuttall. 
Torr.— Torrey. 
Walt.— Walter. 

278.  Use  of  parentheses. — Recent  custom  sanctions 
the  use  of  the  parentheses  to  indicate  the  original  author 
of  a  specific  or  varietal  name.    A  name  written  thus, 


NOMENCLATURE  255 

Kceleria  cristata  (L.)  Pers.,  indicates  that  Persoon  was 
the  author  of  the  accepted  combination  and  that  Linnaeus 
was  the  author  of  the  name  cristata  under  some  other 
genus,  in  this  case  under  Aira.  Persoon  transferred  the 
species  to  Koeleria.  If  a  variety  has  been  raised  to  a 
species,  or  the  reverse,  the  parentheses  are  used  to  indi- 
cate the  original  author.  If  the  parentheses  are  not  used, 
as  is  the  case  in  most  of  the  older  works,  the  name  retained 
is  the  author  of  the  combination.  Among  zoologists  the 
custom  often  prevails  of  retaining  only  the  original  author 
in  parantheses,  omitting  the  author  of  the  combination. 
The  use  of  the  parentheses  is  often  referred  to  as  double 
citation. 

CAPITALIZATION 

279.  As  previously  stated,  the  generic  name  always 
begins  with  a  capital  letter.  The  specific  or  varietal  name 
begins  with  a  small  letter  unless  the  word  is  a  proper 
name.  Many  botanists  decapitalize  all  specific  names 
regardless  of  derivation.  The  latter  system  conduces  to 
uniformity  but  violates  the  rules  of  the  Latin  language, 
which  is  the  language  of  botanical  nomenclature.  Con- 
forming to  the  first  system,  specific  names  are  capitalized 
if  they  are  proper  nouns.  Such  nouns  may  be  derived 
from  a  personal  name,  or  they  may  be  proper  names  such 
as  are  mentioned  under  nouns  in  apposition.  Some  authors 
capitalize  geographic  adjectives,  as  Virginiensis  and  Caro- 
linianus,  but  this  is  not  required  by  Latin  usage. 

Decapitalization  of  proper  names  may  lead  to  ambiguity.  The 
specific  name  Leonis  would  indicate  that  the  species  was  named  for 
a  man  by  the  name  of  Leon,  but  if  the  name  is  decapitalized,  leonis, 
it  may  mean  merely,  of  the  Uon.  More  serious  is  the  decapitalization 
of  a  name  hke  Millefolium  (Achillea  Millefolium).    This  is  an  old 


256  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

proper  name  and  when  used  as  a  specific  name  is  indeclinable.  If 
it  is  decapitalized  it  is  at  once  confused  with  the  adjective  mille- 
folium, which  is  declinable. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

280.  It  is  frequently  necessary,  or  at  least  desirable, 
to  refer  to  works,  serials  and  periodicals.  For  convenience, 
the  titles  are  usually  abbreviated,  and  the  citation  of 
volume  and  page  follows  a  definite  form.  If  titles  are 
abbreviated  it  is  the  aim  to  make  abbreviations  under- 
standable, concise  and  consistent.  The  important  words 
of  the  title  are  selected  and  are  abbreviated  as  are  the 
names  of  authors,  that  is,  to  the  vowel  of  the  second  syl- 
lable. In  referring  to  an  article  in  a  periodical,  the  volume 
and  page  of  the  original  are  given  rather  than  a  reference 
to  a  separate  of  the  article.  Many  botanists  have  adopted 
the  convenient  system  of  citing  the  volume  of  a  periodical 
or  work  in  arable  in  bold-faced  type.  Following  the  vol- 
ume number  is  a  colon  and  the  page  and  finally  the  year. 

The  examples  given  below  will  illustrate  the  system : 

Vasey,  Bot.  Gaz.  9:  97.    1884. 

H.  B.  K.,  Nov.  Gen.  &  Sp.  1 :  99.   1816. 

Swartz,  Prod.  Veg.  Ind.  Occ.  23.    1788. 

Scribn.  &  Merr.  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Circ.  35:  3.  1901. 

Beyr.  in  Trin.  Mem.  Acad.  St.  Petersb.  VI.  Sci.  Nat.  1 :  341.  1834. 

Nees;  Doell  in  Mart.  Fl.  Bras.  2^:  213.    1877. 

If  a  botanist  describes  a  species  in  the  work  of  another, 
the  name  of  the  former  is  followed  by  "in,"  as  in  the  last 
two  examples.  A  semicolon  following  an  author's  name 
indicates  that  the  author  proposed  the  name  but  the 
description  was  written  by  the  botanist  whose  name  fol- 
lows the  semicolon. 


NOMENCLATURE  257 

VALID   NAMES   AND   SYNONYMS 

281.  The  student  is  often  disconcerted  when  he  finds 
that  a  species  has  more  than  one  name.  It  should  be  under- 
stood that  a  given  species,  as  viewed  by  a  given  botanist, 
has  but  one  valid  name,  all  other  names  being  synonyms. 
A  genus  bears  the  name  assigned  to  it  by  the  botanist  who 
first  indicated  or  described  it.  (By  common  consent  names 
dating  publication  prior  to  1753  are  excluded.)  A  later 
botanist  may  describe  the  same  genus  as  new,  not  being 
acquainted  with  the  earlier  description.  The  second  name 
then  becomes  a  synonym.  Sometimes  an  author  describes  a 
new  genus  and  assigns  to  it  a  name  which  has  already  been 
used  for  an  earlier  genus.  Such  a  name  is  a  homonym, 
and  can  not  be  accepted  as  valid,  hence  the  genus  must 
receive  a  new  name.  A  botanist  may  divide  a  genus  of  an 
earlier  author  into  two  or  more  distinct  genera  (generic 
concepts  being  opinions),  in  which  case  he  retains  the 
original  generic  name  for  one  of  the  parts  and  assigns  new 
names  to  the  other  parts.  It  is  clear,  then,  that  the  same 
species  might  have  two  valid  names  according  to  the  vary- 
ing concepts  of  two  botanists.  Barnyard-grass  would  be 
called  Panicum  Crus-galli  by  one  botanist  who  considered 
Echinochloa  to  be  a  section  of  Panicum,  and  Echinochloa 
Crus-galli  by  another  who  considered  the  group  Echino- 
chloa to  constitute  a  distinct  genus. 

Specific  names  are  governed  by  the  same  rule,  that  is 
priority.  The  earliest  name  is  used  if  there  is  no  reason 
for  rejecting  it.  In  transferring  a  species  from  one  genus 
to  another  the  original  specific  name  is  retained  unless 
there  is  already  in  the  second  genus  a  species  by  that 
name,  in  which  case  the  transferred  species  receives  a 
new  name. 
Q 


258  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

CODES   OF   BOTANICAL   NOMENCLATURE 

282.  Botanists  have  recognized  the  necessity  of  being 
governed  by  a  definite  system  in  nomenclatorial  matters, 
and  many  have  adopted  sets  of  rules  or  codes.  The  best 
known  of  the  earher  codes  is  that  adopted  at  the  Inter- 
national Botanical  Congress  held  in  Paris  in  1867.  The 
report  was  edited  by  Alphonse  de  Candolle  and  the  Eng- 
lish translation  is  entitled  "Laws  of  Botanical  Nomencla- 
ture." The  report  should  be  read  by  all  interested  in 
nomenclature. 

283.  Vienna  code. — The  most  important  recent  code 
is  that  adopted  by  the  International  Botanical  Congress 
held  at  Vienna  in  1905,  and  entitled,  "International 
Rules  of  Botanical  Nomenclature."  A  few  of  the  princi- 
ples are  here  excerpted  in  order  to  indicate  the  general 
trend  of  the  rules. 

Botanical  nomenclature  begins  with  the  "Species  Plantarum" 
of  Linnseus  (1753)  for  all  vascular  plants.    (Art.  19.) 

However,  to  avoid  disadvantageous  changes  in  the  nomen- 
clature of  genera  by  the  strict  application  of  the  rules  of  nomen- 
clature, and  especially  of  the  principle  of  priority  in  starting  from 
1753,  the  rules  provide  a  hst  of  names  which  must  be  retained  in 
all  cases.  The  list  forms  an  appendix  to  the  rules  [usually  referred 
to  as  "hst  of  nomina  conservanda"].    (Art.  20.) 

No  one  is  authorized  to  reject,  change  or  modify  a  name  (or 
combination  of  names)  because  it  is  badly  chosen,  or  disagreeable, 
or  another  is  preferable  or  better  known,  or  because  of  the  existence 
of  an  earher  homonym  which  is  universally  regarded  as  non-vahd, 
or  for  any  other  motive  either  contestible  or  of  little  import. 
(Art.  50.) 

When  a  species  is  moved  from  one  genus  into  another,  its  specific 
epithet  must  be  changed  if  it  is  already  borne  by  a  valid  species  of 
that  genus.    (Art.  53.) 

The  hst  of  nomina  conservanda  referred  to  under  article  20 
includes  the  following  American  grass  genera: 


NOMENCLATURE  259 

Tragus  (1768)  to  be  used  instead  of  Nazia  (1763). 

Leersia  (1788)  to  be  used  instead  of  Homalocenchrus  (1760). 

Hierochloe  (1810)  to  be  used  instead  of  Savastana  (1799). 

Cynodon  (1805)  to  be  used  instead  of  Capriola  (1763). 

Ctenium  (1814)  to  be  used  instead  of  Campulosus  (1810). 

Buchloe  (1859)  to  be  used  instead  of  Bulbilis  (1819). 

Lamarckia  (1794)  to  be  used  instead  of  Achyrodes  (1760). 

Glyceria  (1810)  to  be  used  instead  of  Panicularia  (1763). 

Article  50,  requires  the  use  of 

Setaria  Beauv.  1807,  not  Ach.  1798,  nor  Michx.  1803,  instead 
of  Chaetochloa  Scribn.  1897. 

Digitaria  Hall.  1768,  not  Heist.  1763,  instead  of  Syntherisma 
Walt.  1788. 

284.  American  code. — "The  American  Code  of  Botani- 
cal Nomenclature"  was  prepared  by  a  Nomenclature 
Commission  of  the  Botanical  Club  of  the  American  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Advancement  of  Science.  The  latest  revis- 
ion of  this  code  was  made  in  1907.  (See  Bull.  Torrey  Club 
34: 167-178.  1907.)  Although  this  code  has  been  adopted 
by  neither  the  Botanical  Club  nor  the  American  Associa- 
tion, and  has  no  official  standing,  it  is  followed  more  or 
less  closely  by  many  American  botanists.  Some  of  its 
important  provisions  are  given  for  comparison. 

Botanical  nomenclature  is  treated  as  beginning  with  the  general 
application  of  binomial  names  of  plants  (Linnaeus'  "Species  Plan- 
tarum,"  1753).    (Principle  2.) 

The  application  of  a  name  is  determined  by  its  reference  to  a 
nomenclatorial  type.    (Principle  4.) 

In  the  transfer  of  a  species  from  one  genus  to  another,  the  orig- 
inal specific  name  is  retained,  unless  the  resulting  binomial  has  been 
previously  published.    (Canon  9.) 

The  nomenclatorial  type  of  a  species  or  subspecies  is  the  speci- 
men to  which  the  describer  originally  applied  the  name  in  publica- 
tion.   (Canon  14.) 

The  nomenclatorial  type  of  a  genus  or  subgenus  is  the  species 
originally  named  or  designated  by  the  author  of  the  name.    If  no 


260  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

species  was  designated,  the  type  is  the  first  binomial  species  in 
order  ehgible  under  the  following  provisions:  [then  follow  the  pro- 
visions].   (Canon  15.) 

A  name  is  rejected  when  preoccupied  (homonjon).    (Canon  16.) 
A  name  is  rejected  when  there  is  an  older  valid  name  based  on 
another  member  of  the  same  group  (metonym).    (Canon  17.) 

285.  Comparison  of  the  two  recent  codes. — The  two 

codes  agree  in  taking  1753  as  the  starting  point  for  priority 
and  in  using  the  e^rhest  specific  name.  They  disagree 
chiefly  in  the  following: 

The  Vienna  Code  provides  a  hst  of  nomina  conservanda  to 
which  the  law  of  priority  shall  not  apply.  The  American  Code 
does  not  restrict  the  law  of  priority,  except  as  indicated  in 
principle  2. 

The  Vienna  Code  allows  the  use  of  generic  and  specific  names 
although  there  may  be  earlier  but  non-vaUd  homonyms.  The  Amer- 
ican Code  rejects  homonyms.  (Digitaria  and  Setaria  are  accepted 
under  the  Vienna  Code  and  rejected  under  the  American  Code; 
Bromus  altissimus  Pursh,  1814,  not  Bromus  altissimus  Gilib., 
1792,  is  accepted,  under  the  Vienna  Code,  because  the  homonj-m  is 
itself  a  synonym  of  another  species  and  is  not  valid.  Pursh's  name 
is  rejected  under  the  American  Code.) 

The  American  Code  fixes  the  appKcation  of  names  by  reference 
fo  nomenclatorial  types.  The  Vienna  Code  does  not  mention  types. 
This,  in  practice,  is  a  very  important  difference.  Under  the  Amer- 
ican Code  a  specific  name  stands  or  falls  according  to  the  disposition 
of  the  type  specimen,  and  a  genus  must  always  include  the  type 
species. 

In  the  present  work  the  nomenclature,  with  a  few 
minor  exceptions,  follows  the  American  Code. 

COMMON   NAMES 

286.  The  common  name  is  the  name  by  which  a  plant 
is  commonly  known  in  the  language  of  the  country.  Few 
plants,  and  these  widely  and  commonly  cultivated  spe- 


NOMENCLATURE  261 

cies,  have  definite  and  universally  recognized  common 
names  in  a  country.  The  common  names,  wheat,  oats, 
rye  and  barley  are  definite  in  their  application.  Millet 
is  not  a  definite  name  as  it  may  mean  foxtail  millet,  proso 
millet,  sorghum,  or  even  pearl  millet.  Timothy  is  in  some 
localities  called  herd's-grass,  a  name  which  is  often  applied 
to  redtop.  Kentucky  blue-grass  is  also  called  June-grass, 
and  Bermuda-grass  is  called  wire-grass.  Such  terms  as 
bunch-grass,  wild  oats,  barley-grass  and  many  others,  are 
so  indefinite  in  their  application  that  they  are  of  little 
value  as  names. 

Because  of  this  lack  of  precision  in  applying  common 
names  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  introduce  the  use  of 
the  botanical  or  Latin  names  of  the  species.  Furthermore 
the  Latin  name  is  applicable  in  all  countries  regardless  of 
the  native  language.  Well-known  common  names  such  as 
timothy  and  Johnson-grass  may  be  sufficiently  definite. 
Where  common  names  are  applied  to  different  species  in 
different  parts  of  a  country  it  is  necessary  to  supplement 
the  common  name  with  the  Latin  name,  for  example, 
bluejoint  (Andropogon  furcatus,  Calamagrostis  canadensis, 
or  Agropyron  Smithii),  foxtail  (Chcetochloa  viridis,  C. 
lutescens,  Hordeum  juhatum,  H.  murinum,  and  other 
species),  wire-grass  (Capriola  Dadylon,  Poa  compressa, 
Juncus  halticus)  and  many  others.  Furthermore,  a  large 
number  of  grasses  have  never  received  common  names 
or  only  such  indefinite  local  names  as  bunch-grass  and 
wild  oats.  For  such  grasses  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  Latin 
names.  That  the  technical  Latin  name  of  a  grass  is  readily 
accepted  by  the  public  is  shown  by  the  wide  use  of  Bromus 
inermis.  Some  botanical  works  have  attempted,  with 
doubtful  success,  to  introduce  as  common  names  the 
translations  of  the  Latin  names.     Such  names  may  be 


262  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

occasionally  used  by  amateur  botanists,  but  scarcely  by 
the  general  public. 

LIST  OP  BOOKS  AND  ARTICLES  RELATING  TO 
TAXONOMIC  AGROSTOLOGY 

From  the  large  number  of  works  on  this  subject  a  few 
of  the  recent  more  important  and  accessible  are  here 
indicated.  Appended  to  the  main  list  which  deals  with 
North  American  agrostology  is  a  brief  list  of  representative 
reference  works  upon  the  grasses  of  foreign  countries. 

Works  relating  to  genera 

Bentham  &  Hooker,  Genera  Plantarum,  3,  part  2,  1883. 

Durand,   Index  Generum  Phanerogamorum,   1888.    A  systematic 

index  to  Bentham  &  Hooker's  Genera  Plantarum. 
Engler  &  Prantl,  Pflanzenfamilien.    Gramineae  by  Hackel,  II,  2. 

1887.    There  are  additions  by  Hackel  and  by  Pilger. 
Dalla  Torre  &  Harms,   Genera  Siphonogamarimi,   1900-1907.    A 

systematic  index  to  Engler  &  Prantl's  Pflanzenfamilien. 
Hackel,  True  Grasses,   1890.    Translated  from  the  preceding,  by 

Scribner  &  Southworth. 
Scribner,   American  Grasses,   III,   Descriptions  of  the  tribes  and 

genera.    (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  20.  1900.) 
Chase,  Notes  on  Gtenera  of  Panicese.  (In  four  parts,  Proc.  Biol.  Soc. 

Washington.    1.19:183-192.     1906.    11.21:1-10.    1908.    III. 

21:175-188.   1908.   IV.  24:103-160.   1911). 

Manuals  and  floras 

North  American  Flora.  PoacesD  by  Nash  (17:  77-98. 1909;  99-196. 
1912).    Descriptions. 

Beal,  Grasses  of  North  America.  I.  1887.  II.  1896  (systematic  por- 
tion).   Descriptions. 

Bailey,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture,  2:365-376.  1907. 
Grasses  by  Hitchcock. 


NOME  NC  LA  TURE  263 

Bailey,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Horticulture.  Grasses  by  Hitchcock, 

the  genera  alphabetically  arranged. 
Francis,   Book   of   Grasses,   an  illustrated   guide   to   the   common 

grasses  and  the  most  common  of  the  rushes  and  sedges. 
Britton  &  Brown,  Illustrated  Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States, 

Canada  and  the  British  Possessions,  2d  edition.   Vol.  I.    1913. 

Descriptions. 
Britton,  Manual  of  the  Flora  of  the  Northern  States  and  Canada. 

3d  edition.    1907.    Descriptions. 
Gray's  New  Manual  of  Botany,  7th  edition.    A  handbook  of  the 

flowering   plants  and  ferns  of  the   central  and   northeastern 

United  States  and  adjacent  Canada,  by  Robinson  &  Fernald. 

1908.    Descriptions. 
Pammel,  Ball  &  Scribner,  The  Grasses  of  Iowa.    II.    (Iowa  Geol. 

Surv.  Suppl.  Rep.    1903.    Issued  in  1905).    Descriptions. 
Small,  Flora  of  the  Southeastern  United  States.    1903.    Descrip- 
tions. 
Scribner,  Grasses  of  Tennessee:  II.  (Tenn.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  7, 

1894).   Descriptions. 
Coulter  &  Nelson,  New  Manual  of  Botany  of  the  Central  Rocky 

Mountains.   1909.   Descriptions. 
Rydberg,  Flora  of  Colorado  (Colo.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.,  Bull.  100.   1905). 

List  with  keys. 
Coulter,  Botany  of  Western  Texas  (Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.  2:  347- 

568;  grasses  in  part  3.   1894).   Descriptions. 
Wooton  &  Standley,  The  Grasses  and  Grass-like  Plants  of  New 

Mexico  (N.  Mex.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bull.  81.   1911).   Annotated 

list. 
Rydberg,  Catalogue  of  the  Flora  of  Montana  (Mem.  N.  Y,  Bot. 

Card.  1.   1900).   Annotated  list. 
HoweU,  Flora  of  Northwest  America.    1903.   Descriptions. 
Piper,  Flora  of  the  State  of  Washington  (Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb. 

11.   1906).   List  with  keys. 
Piper  &  Beattie,  Flora  of  Southeastern  Washington  and  Adjacent 

Idaho.   1914.   Descriptions. 
Jepson,  Flora  of  Cahfornia.  Gramineae  by  Hitchcock  (1 :  82-189,  in 

part  3.    1912).    Descriptions. 
Scribner  &  Merrill,  Grasses  of  Alaska  (Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.  13: 

47-92.    1910). 


264  A    TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Foreign  floras 
Europe. 

Richter,  Plantse  Europae   (1,    1890,   includes  the  grasses).     A 

list  with  synonymy. 
Ascherson  &  Grsebner,  Synopsis  der  Mitteleuropaischen  Flora 

(2,  part  1,  1898-1902,  includes  the  grasses). 
Briquet,  Prodrome  de  la  Flore  Corse   (1,   1910,  includes  the 

grasses) .   This  flora  of  Corsica  is  the  most  recent  exposition 

of  European  agrostology. 
HaUcsy,  Conspectus  Florae  Graecae  (3,  part  2,  1904,  includes 

the  grasses). 
Asia. 

Hooker,  Flora  of  British  India  (7,  1896,  includes  the  grasses). 
Trimen,  Handbook  to  the  Flora  of  Ceylon.    (5,  1900,  includes 

the  grasses). 
Cooke,  Flora  of  the  Presidency  of  Bombay  (2,  1908,  includes 

the  grasses). 
Ridley,  Materials  for  a  Flora  of  the  Malayan  Peninsula  (3, 

1907,  includes  the  grasses). 
Franchet  &  Savatier,  Enumeratio  Plantarum  in  Japonia  Sponte 

Crescentium.  (2, 1879,  includes  the  grasses).  Annotated  list. 
Forbes  &  Hemsley,  Enumeration  of  All  the  Plants  Known  from 

China  Proper,  Formosa,  Hainan,  Corea,  the  Luchu  Archi- 
pelago, and  the  Island  of  Hong-Kong  (Journ.  Linn.  Soc. 

Bot.  26,  Gramineae  by  Rendle).    Annotated  hst. 
Merrill,  Enumeration  of  Phihppine  Gramineae   (Phil.  Journ. 

Sci.  1,  Suppl.  5,  1906).   Annotated  hst  with  keys. 
Post,  Flora  of  Syria,  Palestine  and  Sinai. 

Africa. 

Durand  &  Schinz,  Conspectus  Flora;  Africae  (5,  1895,  includes 

the  grasses).   Annotated  list. 
Muschler,  Manual  Flora  of  Egypt  (1,  1912,  includes  the  grasses). 
Dyer,  Flora  Capensis  (7,  part  2,  1898,  includes  the  grasses  by 

Stapf). 

Australasia  and  Hawaii. 

Bentham,  Flora  Australiensis  (7,  1878,  includes  the  grasses). 
Maiden,  Manual  of  the  Grasses  of  New  South  Wales.    1898. 


NO  MEN  CL  A  T  URE  265 

Cheeseman,  Manual  of  the  New  Zealand  Flora.    1906. 
Hillebrand,  Flora  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.    1888. 

Tropical  North  America. 

Hitchcock,    Mexican  Grasses  in  the  United  States  National 

Herbarium  (Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.  17:181-389.  1913). 

An  annotated  hst  with  keys. 
Grisebach,  Flora  of  the  British  West  Indian  Islands.     1864. 

Descriptions. 
Hitchcock,  Catalogue  of  the  Grasses  of  Cuba.   (Contr.  U.  S. 

Nat.  Herb.  12:183-258.    1909).    Annotated  list  with  keys. 
Urban,    Flora    Portoricensis   (Symb.    Ant.  4:    76-109.     1903. 

Gramineae   by  Hackel   and   Pilger).     An   annotated    list. 

South  America. 

Martins,   Flora  BrasiUensis  (2,  part  2,  1871-1877,  GramineiB 

by  Doell;  part  3,  1878-1883,  Gramineae  by  Hackel,  and 

by  Doell). 
Arechavaleta,    Las   Gramineas   Uruguayas    (Ann.    Mus.    Nac. 

Montevideo  1894r-1897;  reprint  pp.  1-552). 

Monographs  and  Revisions 

Griffiths,    The   Grama   Grasses:    Bouteloua   and   Related    Genera 

(Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.  14:  343-428.    1912). 
Hitchcock,  North  American  Species  of  Agrostis  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr. 

Bur.  PI.  Ind.  Bull.  68.    1905). 
Hitchcock,   North  American  Species  of  Leptochloa   (Op.   cit.  33. 

1903). 
Hitchcock  &  Chase,  North  American  Species  of  Panicum  (Contr. 

U.  S.  Nat.  Herb.  15.    1910). 
Kearney,  Revision  of  the  North  American  Species  of  Calamagrostis 

(U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  11.    1898). 
Merrill,  North  American  Species  of  Spartina  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Bur. 

PI.  Ind.  Bull.  9.    1902). 
Nash,   Genus  Cenchrus  in   North  America.     (Bull.   Torrey  Club 

22:  298-.301.    1895). 
Nash,  Genus  Syntherisma  in  North  America  (Op.  cit.  25:  289-303. 

1898). 


266  A   TEXT-BOOK  OF  GRASSES 

Nash,  Revision  of  the  Genera  Chloris  and  Eustachys  in   North 

America  (Op.  cit.  25:  432-450.    1898). 
Nash,  Revision  of  the  Genus  Triplasis  (Op.  cit.  25:  561-565.   1898). 
Piper,  North  American  Species  of  Festuca  (Contr.  U.  S.  Nat.  Herb. 

10:  1-48.  1906). 
Scribner,  The  Genus  Sphenopholis  (Rhodora,  8:    137-146.    1906). 
Scribner  &  Merrill,  North  American  Species  of  Chsetochloa  (U.  S. 

Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull.  21.    1900). 
Scribner  &  Smith,  Native  and  Introduced  Species  of  the  Genera 

Hordeum  and  Agropyron  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.  Bull. 

4:  23-36.    1897). 
Shear,  Revision  of  the  North  American  Species  of  Bromus  Occurring 

North  of   Mexico.    (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.  Div.  Agrost.    Bull.   23. 

1900). 
Smith,  Synopsis  of  the  Genus  Sitanion  (U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.    Div. 

Agrost.  Bull.  18.   1899). 


T.IB3RARY  OF 

TSr.  C.  STATE  COLLB0^ 


INDEX 


Achyrodes  aureum,  220. 
viCgilops  ovata,  240. 
Aigopogon,  173. 
Agropyron,  27,  235,  236,  237. 
repens,  238. 
Smithii,  39,  238. 
spicatum,  28. 
tenerum,  45,  238. 
AgrostideiB,  150,  196. 
Agrostis,  198,  203. 
alba,  203. 

maritima,  205. 
vulgaris,  204,  205. 
canina,  205. 
Agrostology,  economic,  2. 
list  of  works  on,  262. 
systematic,  3,  94. 
Aira,  208. 
Alcohol,  11,  12. 
Alfalfa,  41. 

jiroduction  of,  16. 
by  states,  85. 
Alfilaria,  26. 
Alopecurus,  196,  197,  202. 

pratensis,  202,  203. 
Ammophila,  198,  206. 
arenaria,  144,  148,  206. 
as  sand-binder,  71. 
Amphicarpon,  177. 
Anastrophus,  180. 
.Anatomy,  gross,  96. 
Andropogon,  27,  165,  169,  170. 
Elliottii,  105. 
furcatus,  39,  169. 
halepensis,  170. 
Bcoparius,  39,  40,  169. 
Sorghum,  171. 
virginicus,  169. 
Andropogoneae,  155,  164. 
Anthsenantia,  177. 
Anthochloa,  222. 
colusana,  106. 
Anthoxanthum,  192,  193. 
aristatum,  192. 
odoratum,  192. 
Puelii,  192. 
Apera,  198. 


Arid  region,  83. 
Aristida,  135,  196,  199. 

longiseta,  199. 

scabra,  199. 

weedy  species  of,  78. 
Arrhenatherum,  209,  212. 

elatius,  212. 

bulbosum,  142,  212. 
Arundinaria  japonica,  69,  247. 

macrosperma,  247-248, 

tecta,  247. 
Arundinella,  175. 
Arundo,  219,  220,  224. 

Donax,  224. 
Atriplex,  21. 
Auricles,  108. 

Authors  of  botanical  names,  254. 
Avena,  209. 

barbata,  46,  211. 

fatua,  46,  211. 
glabrata,  46,  211. 

nuda,  210. 

sativa,  210. 

sterilis,  211. 

strigosa,  211. 
Avenese,  156,  208. 
Awns,  126-127,  134. 
Axonopus,  178,  180. 
compressus,  180. 

Bamboos,  69,  74,  247. 

scales  of,  109-110. 
Bambos  Bambos,  247. 
Bambusa  vulgaris,  247. 
Bambusese,  156,  247. 
Barley,  244-245. 

fruit  of,  139. 

grass,  77. 

wild,  245. 
Beach  grass,  144,  206. 

as  sand-binder,  71. 
Beckmannia,  214. 
Beggar-weed,  Florida,  53. 
Bent,  creeping,  205. 

Rhode  Island,  204,  205. 
Bermuda-grass,  30-32,  45,  214-215. 

crop  area,  81. 


(267) 


268 


INDEX 


Bermuda  lawns,  61-63. 

soil-binder,  69. 

weed,  78. 
Bibliography,  256. 
Billion-dollar  grass,  49,  184. 
Bindweed,  75. 
Blade,  104,  106. 

auricles,  108. 

nervation  of,  107. 
Blepharidachne,  221. 
Blepharoneuron,  198. 
Blue-grass,  30-31,  45,  227. 

annual,  66,  230. 

Canada,  34-35,  229. 

English,  34,  230. 

for  lawns,  61-62. 

Kentucky,  228. 

Texas,  230. 
Blue  joint,  39,  206. 

stem,  39. 
big,  169. 
Colorado,  39. 
little,  39,  40,  169. 
Bouteloua,  213,  214,  216. 

curtipendula,  39,  217. 

gracilis,  142,  216. 

hirsuta,  217. 

oligostachya,  216. 
Brachiaria,  178. 
Brachyelytrum,  197. 
Bracts,  109,  110. 
Briza,  222. 
Brome,  awnless,  33,  232-233. 

grass,  33,  232. 
annuals,  26. 
weeds,  77. 
Schrader's,  233. 

Hungarian,  33. 
Bromus,  219,  224,  232. 

arenarius,  234. 

commutatus,  77. 

hordeaceus,  77,  234. 

inermis,  33,  233. 

madritensis,  234. 

pratensis,  234. 

rubens,  77,  234. 

secalinus,  50,  77,  232,  234. 

tectorum,  77,  234. 

Trinii,  234. 

unioloides,  233. 

villosus,  77,  234. 

corn,  170,  172. 

millet,  50,  182. 

sedge,  169. 
Buchloe  dactyloides,  218. 
Buckwheat,  7. 
Buffalo-grass,  27,  143,  218. 


Buffalo-grass  for  lawns,  64. 
Bulbilis,  213,  218. 

dactyloides,  143,  217-218. 
Bulblets,  propagation  by,  1.39. 
Bunch-grasses,  28,  45,  145. 
Burro-grass,  220. 
Burs,  135. 

sand,  187. 

Cactus,  prickly  pear,  cultivation  of,  21. 
Calamagrostis,  196,  198,  205-206. 

canadensis,  39,  206. 

rubescens,  206. 

Suksdorfii,  206. 

scabra,  205,  206. 

Langsdorfii,  206. 
Calamovilfa,  198. 

longifolia,  144. 
Callus,  125,  134,  135. 
Campulosus,  214. 
Canada  thistle,  75. 
Canary-grass,  194. 
reed,  39,  194. 

seed,  195. 
Cane,  vnXd,  247. 

scutch,  247. 
Capitalization  of  botanical  names,  255. 
Capriola,  214. 

Dactylon,  214-215. 
Carpet-grass,  32,  35,  180. 
for  lawns,  63. 
stolons  of,  102. 
Caryopsis,  6,  129,  138. 
Catabrosa,  222. 
Cenchrus,  135,  176,  177,  187. 

carolinianum,  187. 

tribuloidea,  187. 
Cereals,  value  and  production  of,  8-11. 
ChiEtium,  176. 
Chaetochloa,  176,  177,  184. 

italica,  7,  184,  185,  195. 

lutescens,  184. 

\'iridis,  184. 
Cheat,  50,  77. 
Chenopodium  Quinoa,  7. 
Chess,  50,  77. 
Chlorideffi,  156,  213. 
Chloris,  214,  216. 

Gayana,  216. 
Chrysopogon,  165. 
Cinna,  196,  198. 
Circium  arvense,  75. 
Circumpolar  distribution,  149. 
Classification,  151-158. 

characters  used  in,  157. 

natural,  19. 

of  forage  plants,  22. 


INDEX 


2G9 


Clover,  41. 

alsike,  41-42. 

Bokhara,  53. 

bur.  32,  41. 

crimson,  41,  52. 

Japan,  32,  41^2. 

production  of,  16. 
by  states,  84. 

red,  41-42. 

sweet,  41^2,  53. 

true,  41. 

■white,  41-42. 
Cob,  corn,  morphology  of,  116. 
Cock's-foot  grass,  216,  227. 
Code,  American,  259. 

Vienna,  258. 
Codes  of  botanical  nomenclature,  258. 

comparison  of  American  and  Inter- 
national, 260. 
Coix,  159,  162. 

lacryma-Jobi,  162. 
Collar  of  leaf,  105. 
Colorado-grass,  50,  183. 
Cord-grass,  39,  40. 
Corms,  102,  141. 
Corn-cob,  morphology  of,  116. 

history  of,  161-162. 

origin  of,  161. 

used  for  hay  and  forage,  48-49. 

varieties  of,  161. 
Cortaderia,  219,  220,  224. 

argentea,  224. 

jubata,  224. 
Cottea.  219. 
Couch-grass,  78,  238. 
Cowpea,  51. 
Crab-grass,  50,  148,  181. 

weed,  66,  76-77. 
Creeping  bent  for  lawns,  61-62. 
Crested  dog's-tail,  220. 
Crop-grass,  181. 
Crowfoot-grass,  76. 
Culm,  99. 

Curly  mesquite,  27,  173. 
Cymbopogon,  166,  169. 

citratus,  170. 

Nardus,  114,  170. 
Cynodon  dactylon,  215. 
Cynosurus  cristatus,  220. 

Dactylis,  222,  226. 
glomerata,  226. 
Dactyloctenium,  213, 
Danthonia,  209. 
Darnel,  237. 
Deschampsia,  209. 
Deserts,  144-145. 


Diarrhena,  221. 
Dichanthelium,  182. 
Digitaria  humifusa,  181. 
Dissanthelium,  221. 
Distichlis,  219,  220,  225. 

spicata,  225. 
Distribution,  circumpolar,  149. 

generic,  149-150. 

geographical,  147-1.50. 

of  grasses,  148. 

of  species,  148-149. 
Dunes,  sand,  143-144. 
Duration,  99. 
Durra,  170,  172. 

Echinocbloa,  176,  179,  183. 

colonum,  184. 

Crus-galli,  106,  183. 

frumentacea,  183-184. 

sabulicola,  146. 
Ecology,  133-150. 
Egyptian  corn,  170. 
Einkorn,  241,  242. 
Eleusine,  214. 

indica,  148. 
Elionurus,  165. 
Elymus,  235,  236,  246. 

arenarius,  144. 

canadensis,  39. 

flavescens,  144. 

glaucus,  39. 

virginicus,  39. 
Embryo,  131,  136. 
Emmer,  239,  242. 

fruit  of,  139. 
Endosperm,  131. 

Environment,  adaptation  to,  139. 
Epiblast,  136. 
Epicampes,  198. 

rigens,  202. 
Eragrostis,  219,  222,  225. 

abyssinica,  225. 

cilianensis,  225. 

megastachya,  225. 
Erianthus,  165,  167. 

divaricatus,  168. 

RavennsB,  167. 
Eriochloa,  176,  178. 
Erodium  cicutarium,  26. 
Esparto,  73-74,  200. 
Euchtena,  159,  160. 

mexicana,  160. 
Eulalia,  68. 

japonica,  166. 
Eurotia  lanata,  21. 

Evolution,     doctrine     of,     applied     to 
classification,  151. 


270 


INDEX 


Fagopyrum  esculentum,  7. 
Farm  crops,  value  of,  4. 
Fescue-grass,  230. 

for  lawns,  63. 

meadow,  34,  230,  231. 

red,  231. 

sheep's,  231. 

various-leaved,  231. 
Festuca,  219,  223,  230. 

elatior,  231. 

idahoensis,  232. 

ingrata,  232. 

octoflora,  232. 

ovina,  231. 
capillata,  231. 
duriuscula,  231. 

pratensis,  230. 

rubra,  231. 

heterophylla,  231. 

subuliflora,  132. 

viridula,  232. 
Festuceae,  156,  157,  219. 
Field  pea,  52. 
Filaree,  26. 
Fiorin,  204. 

Floral  organs,  morphology  of,  112-132. 
Florets,  118. 

sterile,  125. 
Flowers  of  grasses,  112. 
Fodder,  coarse,  49. 
Forage,  classification  of,  22. 

coarse,  production  of,  20. 
by  states,  85. 

plants,  14. 

relative  importance  of  different  kinds 
of,  84. 
Fowl  meadow-grass,  229. 
Foxtail,  245. 

green,  76,  184. 

grass,  77. 

meadow,  202,  203. 

millet,  185. 

yellow,  76,  184. 
Fruit,  129-130. 

Gama-grass,  160. 
Gardener's  garters,  69,  194. 
Gastridium,  198. 
Genera,  152-153,  156. 

monotypic,  153. 
Generic  distribution,  149. 
Geographical  distribution,  147-150. 

of  grasses,  148. 
Germination,  130,  138. 
Giant  reed.  68,  224. 

as  soil-binder,  69. 
Glumes,  118,  121,  123. 


Glycine  hispida,  53. 
Golden  top,  220. 
Goose-grass,  76,  148. 
Grain,  6. 

cut  green,  production  of,  20. 

hay,  46-47. 

miscellaneous  uses  of,  12. 
Grains,  germination  of,  1.38. 

relative  importance  of,  7. 
Grama,  black,  217. 

blue,  217. 

grass,  27,  143,  216-217. 

side  oat,  217. 

tall,  39,  217. 
Graphephorum,  222. 
Grass,  alfa,  200. 

Bahama,  216. 

barnyard,  183. 

beach,  144,  206. 

bent,  203. 

Bermuda,  30-32,  45,  214-215. 

billion-dollar,  184. 

black,  40. 

blue,  227. 
annual,  230. 
Canada,  229. 
English,  230. 
Kentucky,  228. 
Texas,  230. 

brome,  232. 

awnless,  232,  233. 
Schrader's,  233 

buffalo,  218. 

bur,  187. 

burro,  220. 

canary,  194. 
reed,  194. 

carpet,  ISO. 

citronella,  170. 

cocksfoot,  216,  227. 

Colorado,  183. 

couch,  78,  238. 

crab,  50,  66,  76-77,  148,  181. 

crested  dog's-tail,  220. 

crop  areas,  79,  87. 

crop,  181. 

dog's-tooth,  216. 

dog-town,  199. 

esparto,  200. 

family,  1.54. 

usefulness  to  man,  1-2. 

fescue,  230. 
meadow,  230. 

foxtail,  245. 

golden  top,  220. 

grama,  216-217. 

Guinea,  183. 


INDEX 


271 


Grass,  herd's,  204. 

Himalaya  fairy,  166. 

holy,  193. 

Hungarian,  184,  185. 

Johnson,  43-i4,  78,  170,  171. 

June,  228. 

lemon,  170. 

marram,  144,  206. 

needle,  199. 

oil,  170. 

old  witeh,  76. 

orchard,  33-34,  45,  226. 

pampas,  167,  224. 

Para,  35,  183. 

plume,  68,  167. 

quack,  78. 

quick,  78. 

quitch,  78. 

Randall,  212. 

Ravenna,  68,  167. 

rescue,  233. 

Rhodes,  216. 

ribbon,  68,  69,  194. 

rye,  236-237. 

St.  Augustine,  187. 

St.  Lucie,  63. 

salt,  225. 

sleepy,  200. 

snake,  225. 

spear,  199. 

squirrel-tail,  245. 

stink,  225. 

Sudan,  172. 

sweet  vernal,  45,  103. 

switch,  39,  40. 

tall  oat,  212. 

tickle,  77. 

Uva,  224. 

vanilla,  193. 

velvet,  209. 

vernal,  sweet,  45,  193. 

water,  179. 

wheat,  45,  238. 

wire,  32,  39. 

witch,  old,  76. 
Grasses,  anatomy  of,  96. 

distinguishing  characters  of,  95. 

distribution  of,  97. 

economic  classification  of,  6. 

ornamental,  68,  69. 

pasture,  30. 

range,  26. 

soil-binding,  69-72. 

sugar-producing,  72-73. 

textile,  73-74. 

uses  of,  3,  74. 

water,  138. 


Grasses,  weedy,  76. 
Grazing  in  arid  region,  83. 
Great  Plains,  143. 

crop  area,  81. 

forage  crops  for,  82. 

species  composing  prairie  hay  in, 
38-39. 
Green-manuring,  74. 
Guinea-grass,  35,  45,  183. 
Gymnopogon,  214. 
(Jymnothrix,  186. 
Gynerium  saccharoides,  224. 
sagittatum,  109,  224. 

Halophytes,  140,  146. 
Hay,  54-57. 

acreage  of,  17. 

baled,  5. 

double-compressed,  57. 

grain,  46-47. 

in  the  West,  56. 

making,  54-55. 

prairie,  38. 

product  of  United  States,  38. 

production  of,  14,  17. 
by  states,  84-85. 

salt  marsh,  40. 

stacks,  55. 

standard,  .56. 

vahie  of,  17. 

wild,  39. 
Heleochloa,  198. 
Hord's-grass,  33,  202,  204. 
Heteropogon,  166. 

contortus,  148. 
Hierochloa,  193. 
High  pine  land,  144. 
Hilaria,  173. 

cenchroides,  143,  173-174. 
Hilum,  130. 

Himalaya  fairy-grass,  166. 
Holcus,  165,  170,  209. 

halepensis,  170-171. 

Sorghum,  170,  172. 
Homalocenchrus,  190. 
Hordes?,  156,  157,  23.5. 
Hordeum,  78,  235,  236,  244. 

distichum,  246. 

Gussoneanum,  77,  245. 

ischnatherum,  246. 

jubatum,  77,  245. 

murinum,  77,  245. 

nodosum,  245. 

polystichum,  246. 

pu.silhmi,  77,  245. 

sativum,  246. 

spontaneum,  240. 


272 


INDEX 


Hordeum,  \'ulgare,  244,  245,  246. 

trifurcatum,  246. 

Hungarian  brome,  33. 

grass,  47,  184,  185. 

production  of,  18. 

by  states,  85. 

Hydrochloa,  190. 

caroliniensis,  146. 
Hydrophytes,  140,  146-147. 
Hystrix,  236. 

Imperata,  165. 

Impervious  seed-conveyers,  137. 

Indian  reed,  39. 

rice,  7. 
Inflorescence,  112-117. 

axis  of,  115,  121. 

motor  organs  of,  117. 

unisexual,  114. 
Involucre,  123. 
Isachne,  176. 
Ischsemum  angustifolium,  74. 

Japanese  lawn-grass,  175. 
Job's  tears,  111,  162. 
Johnson-grass,  43-44,  170,  171. 
eradication  of,  44. 
germination  of,  139. 
weed,  78. 
Jouvea  pilosa,  115. 

straminea,  115. 
Juncus  balticus,  39. 

Gerardu,  40. 
June-grass,  30,  228. 

Kafir,  170,  172. 
Kceleria,  208. 

Korean  lawn-grass,  64,  175. 
Kowliang,  172. 

Lagurus,  197,  207. 

ovatus,  207. 
Lamarckia  aurea,  220. 
Lasiacis,  178. 
Lawn,  61-67. 

care  of,  66. 

grass,  Japanese,  175. 
Korean,  175. 

mixtures,  64-65. 

preparation  of  soil,  65. 

seeding,  65. 

turfing,  87. 

watering,  66. 

weeds  in,  66,  77, 
Leaf,  103-105,  108. 
Leaves,  nervation  of,  107, 

roll,  106,  108. 


Legumes,  19,  32. 

annual,  for  hay  or  forage,  50. 
for  soiling,  58. 
Lemmas,  118,  124-125. 

sterile,  125. 
Leptochloa,  213. 
Lepturus,  235,  2.36. 
Lespedeza  striata,  32,  41. 
Ligule,  105-106. 
Lodicules,  128. 
Lolium,  235,  236. 

italicum,  237. 

multiflorum,  237. 

perenne,  237. 

temulentum,  237. 
Limnodea,  196,  197. 
Luziola,  190. 
Lycurus,  196,  197. 
Lygeum  sparteum,  74. 

Maize,  48,  161. 

germination  of,  136. 
Manisuris,  165. 
Marram-grass,  144. 

as  sand-binder,  71. 
Marshes,  grasses  of,  146-147. 
Maydese,  155,  159. 
Meadow  fescue,  34,  45,  230,  231. 

foxtail,  45. 

grass,  fowl,  45,  229. 
rough-stalked,  45,  229. 

grasses,  45. 

oat-grass,  tall,  45,  212. 
Meadows,  tame  or  cultivated,  40. 

permanent,  40-45. 

temporary,  46-53. 

wild  or  native,  38. 
Medicago  sativa,  41. 

arabica,  32,  41. 
Meibomia  tortuosa,  53 
Melica,  141,  223. 
Melilotus  alba,  41. 
Melinideffi,  156,  175. 
Mesophytes,  140-141. 
Mesquite,  curly,  27,  143,  173. 
Milium,  197. 
Millet,  47,  170,  184,  185. 

barnyard,  47,  49,  183. 

broom-corn,  182. 

foxtail,  47,  185,  195. 
production  of,  18. 

German,  47. 

germination  of,  139. 

Golden  Wonder,  47. 

Hungarian,  47. 

Jap.inese  barnyard,  -17,  49. 

pearl,  47,  00,  ISO. 


INDEX 


273 


Millet,  pearl,  for  soiling,  58. 

production  of,  by  states,  85. 

proso,  47,  50,  182. 

Texas,  183. 
Milo,  170,  172. 
Miscanthus,  165,  166. 

nepalensis,  166. 

saccharifer,  166. 

sinensis,  166. 
gracillimus,  166. 
variegatus,  166. 
zebrinus,  166. 
Moisture  as  related  to  crop  areas,  79. 
Molinia,  221. 
Monanthochloe,  219,  220. 
Monerma,  236. 
Moncecious  grasses,  115. 
Morphology  of  floral  organs,  112-132. 

of  vegetative  organs,  95-111. 
Motor  organs,  117. 
Muhlenbergia,  27,  196,  197,  200. 

gracilis,  105,  201. 

straminea,  105. 
Munroa,  221. 

Names,  common,  260-261. 

generic,  250. 

derivation  of,  251. 
formation  of,  250. 

priority  of,  257. 

specific,  251. 

formation  of,  251,  252. 

subspecific,  253. 

transferring,  253-254. 

valid,  257. 

varietal,  253. 
Nardus,  235. 

National  forests,  grazing  in,  24. 
Nazia,  173. 

aliena,  175. 
Naziea,  156,  173. 
Needle-grass,  199. 
Nitrogen-fixing  organisms,  21,  51. 
Node,  98,  105. 
Nomenclature,  250. 

codes  of  botanical,  258. 
Nomina  conservanda,  258. 
Notholcus,  208,  209. 

lanatus,  209. 

Oat,  209. 

animated,  211. 
cultivated,  209. 
origin  of,  211. 
germination  of,  1.38. 
grass,  tall,  45,  212. 
naked,  210. 


Oat,  wild,  46,  211. 
Old  witch-grass,  76. 
Olyra,  176,  177. 
Oplismenus,  176,  179. 
Opuntia,  cultivation  of,  21. 
Orchard-grass,  33-34,  45,  226. 
Orcuttia,  220. 
Oryza,  190. 

sativa,  190,  191. 
Oryzea;,  156,  189. 
Oryzopsis,  196,  197. 
Osterdamia  matrella,  175. 
Overgrazed  pastures,  weeds  of,  77. 
Overgrazing,  24-26. 

Pacific  slope  crop  area,  84. 
Palea,  118,  127. 
Pampas-grass,  224. 

hardy,  167. 
Panicacese,  154-155. 
Panicea;,  156,  176. 
Panicle,  113. 

branching  of,  147. 
Panicoideee,  154-155. 
Panicularia,  223. 
Panicum,  176,  179,  181. 

barbinode,  183. 

bulbosum,  102,  141,  183. 

elephantipes,  146. 

Lindheimeri,  106. 

maximum,  183. 

miliaceum,  8,  182,  194-195. 

sphserocarpon,  106. 

texanum,  183. 

virgatum,  39,  40. 

Pappophorum,  219. 

Para-grass,  35,  183. 

stolons  of,  101. 

Parentheses,  significance    of,    in    ci 

authors,  254. 
Paspalum,176,  178,  179. 

dilatatum,  179. 

dissectum,  146. 

minus,  179. 

notatum,  179. 

repens,  105,  146. 

Pasture-grasses,  33,  45. 

southern,  35. 

plants,  22. 
annual,  36. 
Pastures,  cultivated,  29. 

permanent,  29. 

temporary,  36. 

native,  19. 

woodland,  30. 
Pedicel,  120-121. 
Penicillaria  spicata,  186. 


274 


INDEX 


Penicillaria  typhoideum,  186. 
Pennisetum,  176,  177,  186. 

americanum,  186. 

glaucum,  186. 

villosum,  186. 

Ruppellii,  186. 
Petiole,  107. 
Phalaridea;,  156,  192. 
Phalaris,  192,  194. 

arundinacea,  39,  194. 
picta,  194. 

canarionsis,  194. 

caroliniana,  194. 

paradoxa,  120. 
Pharus,  189,  190. 
Phleum,  197,  202. 

alpinum,  202. 

pratense,  202. 
Phragmites,  219,  220. 
Phyllorachis  sagittata,  108. 
Phyllostachys,  69. 
Phylogeny  of  grasses,  157. 
Pine-barrens,  144. 
Pine-grass,  27. 
Pistil,  129. 
Pisum  arvense,  52. 
Pleuraphis,  173,  175. 

Jamesii,  175. 

rigida,  175. 
Pleuropogon,  222. 
Plume-grass,  68,  167. 
Plumule,  136. 
Poa,  219,  223,  227-228. 

alpina,  139,  149. 

annua,  230. 

weed  in  lawn,  66. 

arachnifera,  230. 

bulbosa,  139. 

compressa,  229. 

pratensis,  228,  229. 

serotina,  229. 

triflora,  229. 

trivialis.  229. 
Poaceae,  154. 
Poeeoideae,  154-155. 
Polygonum  aviculare,  75. 
Polypogon,  196,  197. 
Prairie,  142-143. 
Priority  of  names,  257. 
Production  of  barley,  by  states,  10. 

cereals,  9. 

corn,  by  states,  10. 

emmer  and  spelt,  by  states,  10. 

hay  and  forage  in  United  States,  14. 
by  states,  84. 

kafir,  by  states,  11. 

milo,  by  states,  11. 


Production  of  oats,  by  states,  10. 

rice,  by  states,  11. 

rye,  by  states,  10. 

spelt  and  emmer,  by  states,  10. 

wheat,  by  states,  10. 
Propagation,  by  bulblets,  139. 

by  stems,  102. 
Prophyllum,  104. 
Proso  millet,  7,  182. 
Protective  seed-coats,  137. 
Psammophytes,  143. 
Publications  on  forage  crops  and 

grasses,  list  of,  88-91. 
Puccinellia,  220. 
Purple-top,  39. 

Quack-grass,  78. 
Quick-grass,  78. 
Quinoa,  7. 
Quitch-grass,  78. 

Raceme,  113,  114. 
Rachilla,  121,  131. 
Rachis,  116,  130,  135. 
Ranch  .system,  23. 
Randall-grass,  212. 
Range-grasses,  26. 
Ranges,  22-24. 

worn  out,  rejuvenating  of,  25-26. 
Rape,  21,  37. 
Ravenna-grass,  68,  167. 
Redfieldia,  221. 
Red-top,  33,  43,  203,  204. 

for  lawns,  61. 
Reed,  giant,  68,  224. 

as  soil-binder,  69. 
Reimarochloa,  176,  178. 
Rescue-grass,  37,  233. 
Reynaudia,  189. 
Rhizomes,  100,  110. 
Rhode  Island  bent,  204,  205. 

for  lawns,  61-62. 
Rhodes-grass,  216. 
Ribbon-grass,  68,  69,  194. 
Rice,  190-191. 

germination  of,  139. 
Roll  leaves,  142,  147. 
Root,  98-100. 
Rumex  acetosella,  76. 
Rye,  244. 

grass,  34,  37,  236,  237. 
Australian,  237. 
English,  45. 
for  lawns,  64. 
Italian,  45. 

wild,  246. 
Rytilix,  165. 


INDEX 


275 


Sacchareae,  166. 
Saccharum.  165,  166. 

officinarum,  166-167. 
Sacciolepis,  178. 
St.  Augustine  grass,  32,  35,  187-188. 

for  lawns,  63. 
St.  Lucie  grass  for  lawns,  63. 
Salt  bush,  21. 

grass,  225. 

marshes,  grasses  of,  146. 
Sand-binders,  71,  144. 

bur,  76,  187. 

dunes,  69-72,  143-144. 
fixing,  69-71. 
Savastana,  192. 

odorata,  193. 
Scales,  109. 
Schedonnardus,  214. 
Schizachyrium,  169. 
Schmidtia,  197. 
Scleropogon,  219,  220. 
Scolochloa,  222. 
Scribneria,  235,  236. 
Scrub,  144. 
Secale,  236,  244. 

cereale,  244. 

montanum,  244. 
Seed,  130-131. 

dispersal  of,  133-135. 

self-burial  of,  137. 
Series,  the  2,  of  grasses,  characterized, 

154-1.5.5. 
Setaria,  185. 

italica,  185. 
Shallu,  172. 
Sheath,  104-105. 

node,  105. 
Sheaths  as  floats,  146. 
"Short  grass,"  27. 
country,  143. 
Silage,  57-59. 
Silos,  58-60. 
Sitanion,  235,  236,  246. 

species,  weeds,  78. 
Sleepy-grass,  200. 
Slough-grass,  39. 
Snake-grass,  225. 
Soiling,  57-58. 
Sorghastrum,  165,  173. 

nutans,  39. 
Sorgho,  73,  172. 
Sorghum,  36,  48,  73,  170. 

halepense,  170. 

vulgare,  171. 
Sorghums,  classification  of,  172. 
Soya  soya,  53. 
Soybean,  53. 


Spartina,  214. 

glabra,  40,  148. 

juncea,  40. 

Michauxiana,  39. 

patens,  144. 
Spear-grass,  199. 
Species,  the  unit  of  classification,  151- 

1,52. 
Spelt,  239,  242. 
Sphenopholis,  208. 
Spike,  113. 
Spikelet,  117-119. 

relation  of  parts  of,  122. 

sterile,  120. 

terminology  of  parts  of,  118-119. 

imisexual,  114,  120. 
Spinifex,  176. 

Spodiopogon  sagittifolius,  108. 
Sporobolus,  198. 

airoides,  28. 

cryptandrus,  105. 
Squirrel-tail-grass,  77,  245. 
Stamens,  128. 
Starch,  11-12. 
Stem,  98-100. 

modified,  100. 

propagation  by,  102. 
Stenotaphrum,  177,  187. 

secundatum,  188. 
Stink-grass,  225. 
Stipa,  135,  196,  197,  199. 

elegantissima,  134. 

inebrians,  200. 

pennata,  134,  200. 

sibirica,  200. 

spartea,  200. 

speciosa,  200. 

tenacissima,  74. 

vaseyi,  200. 
Stizolobium  Deeringianuni,  52. 
Stolons,  101. 
Streptocha;ta,  124,  189. 
Sudan-grass,  172. 
Sugar-cane,  72-73,  lR(i. 
Swamp,  grasses  of,  147. 
Sweet  vernal-grass,  45,  193. 
Switch-grass,  39,  40. 
Synonyms,  257. 
Syntherisma,  178,  180. 

glabrum,  181. 

ischsemum,  181. 

linearis,  181. 

sanguinalis,  148,  181. 

Tares,  237. 
Taxonomy,  151-158. 
Teff,  225. 


276 


INDEX 


Temperatiire  as  related  to  crop  areas, 

79. 
Teosinte,  58,  160. 
Texas  millet,  50,  183. 
Thysolsena  agrostis,  69. 
Tickle-grass,  77. 
Timothy,  42,  202. 

and  clover  mixed,  production  of,  15. 
by  states,  84. 

crop  area,  80. 

production  of,  15. 
by  states,  84. 

standard  hay  of  the  East,  56. 
Trachypogon,  165. 
Tribes  of  grasses,  154-156. 
Trichloris,  214. 
Trichotena,  76,  179,  184. 

rosea,  184. 
Tridens,  221. 

flavus,  39. 
Trifolium,  41. 

incarnatum,  41-42,  52. 

hybridum,  41. 

pratense,  41. 

repens,  41-42. 
Triplasis,  221. 
Tripogon,  213. 
Tripsacum,  159. 

dactyloides,  160. 
Trisetum,  209. 
Tristegine®,  175. 
Triticum,  235,  236,  238. 

ffigilopoides,  240. 

aestivum,  241,  242. 

compactum,  240. 

dicoccoides,  240. 

dicoccum,  239,  240,  241,  242. 

durum,  240,  242. 

monococcum,  240,  241,  242. 

ovatum,  240. 

polonicum,  240,  241,  242. 

sativum,  238,  241,  242,  243. 
compactum,  243. 
dicoccum,  243. 
durum,  243. 
spelta,  243. 
tenax,  243. 
turgidum,  243. 
vulgare,  243. 

spelta,  239,  240,  242, 


Triticum,  turgidum,  240,  242. 
vulgare,  238,  240,  241,  242. 

Uniola,  221. 
Uva-grass,  224. 

Valota,  177. 

Vegetative  organs,  morphology  of,  95- 

111. 
Velvet  bean,  52. 

grass,  35,  45,  209. 
Vetch,  52. 
Vicia  sativa,  52. 

villosa,  52. 
Vigna  sinensis,  51. 

Water-grass,  179. 

grasses,  138. 
Weeds,  75-78. 

annual,  76. 

brome-grasses,  77. 

biennial,  76. 

grasses  as,  76. 

perennial,  76. 

eradication  of,  78. 
Wheat,  238. 

classification  of,  242. 

durum,  242. 

grass,  238. 
slender,  45. 

origin  of,  240. 

Polish,  241,  242. 
Wild  grasses,  production  of,  19. 
Winter  fat,  21. 
Wire-grass,  32,  39. 

Xerophytes,  140-145. 

Zea,  159. 

mays,  161. 
Zizania,  190,  191. 

aquatica,  191. 

latifolia,  191. 

palustris,  7,  146,  191. 

injury    to   seeds    of,    by    drying, 
138. 
Zizaniopsis,  190. 

miliaoea,  146. 
Zoysia  pungens,  175. 
Zoysie®,  173. 


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